Microchips

An integrated circuit combines major circuit components onto a single device

Before 1958, these components were fabricated separately before manual assembly, introducing human error, delays, and higher costs. The invention of the IC laid the foundation for automated manufacturing, miniaturization, and improvements to speed and energy efficiency.

Watch a microscopic tour of an Intel i486 microprocessor

Released in 1989 for $950, the chip contained over a million transistors on a piece of silicon the size of a postage stamp, much less packed than today’s chips. The layering of components makes the chip resemble a network of structures—not unlike a city—when zoomed in.

Indigenous women crafted the integrated circuits for the Apollo Guidance Computer

Applying their blanket-weaving skills, over 1,000 Navajo women in New Mexico were hired to connect circuit components in intricate patterns using a microscope. Outside Boston, "rope mothers" at the Raytheon facility wove the AGC's core memory using threaded metal wires.

Integrated circuits come in digital, analog, or mixed types

Each type can be further divided based on application, technology, and integration level. Digital ICs are used in computer memories and microprocessors, while analog ICs process continuous signals within sensors, including temperature, light, and sound.

Watch a tour of an integrated circuit fabrication plant

Explore the protocols in place to ensure clean rooms have no dust to jeopardize the integrity of silicon wafers as they are transformed into working microchips. Layering, photolithography, etching, and chemical vapor deposition are shown alongside digital visualizations.

Transistors are the foundational components of integrated circuits and microchips and manage the processing of electronic signals by controlling the flow of electricity.

Integrated circuits are made with light and require significant purified water and chemicals

The nonstop operation of fabrication plants, which takes months to manufacture a wafer of hundreds of integrated circuits, strains local resources and generates significant chemical waste. Much of the electricity consumed is used to maintain clean room conditions within plants.

Photolithography etches circuit components into a semiconductor wafer

A high-energy laser is fired at molten tin droplets, turning them into plasma that releases the ultraviolet light needed to burn the wafer's photoresist layer. A mask controls what parts of the wafer are etched for subsequent chemical processing.

The world's first commercial biological computer combines neurons with silicon

Australian start-up Cortical Labs unveiled CL1, a hybrid chip designed to help scientists study brain function in real-time. The 800,000 lab-grown neurons on the chip are kept viable for six months via a built-in life support system.

Binary mathematics represented as switches allows silicon rocks to do math

Each switch is assigned a zero or a one based on whether it is open or closed, and logic gates are built from these switches that let the system perform mathematical operations. Modern software builds upon these operations to perform increasingly complex tasks.