Critical minerals are a subset of minerals used to build the batteries, computer chips, and magnets that power modern technologies, from personal devices, to clean energy sources, and advanced military apparatuses.
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Although many of these minerals have been used for decades, such as copper in electrical wiring, the accelerating demand for them has strained existing extraction and processing systems. Supply chain disruptions for these materials may delay and increase the cost of transitioning to solar, wind, hydroelectric, and geothermal power.
The proximity of these elements in the periodic table mean they have similar electron structure and require complex separation processes during processing. However, their uncommon magnetic, luminescent, and electrical properties make them invaluable for critical industrial applications.
Most of the US's supply of critical minerals depends on countries that have historically competed with it, which has raised concerns in Washington. These minerals are needed for green technologies to meet greenhouse gas emission reduction goals.
Mineral wealth can provide public revenue and economic livelihoods to those in mining regions. However, poor management and lack of oversight can cause human rights abuses, environmental degradation, and significant greenhouse gas emissions.
Despite the dependence of phones, laptops, electric cars, and other technologies on the soft, silvery-white metal for their batteries, residents of the Lithium Triangle have not seen the benefits of investments into mining this critical mineral, and have instead faced water shortages and pollution.
Wealthy nations are tapping into their domestic critical mineral reserves and buying up mines in poorer countries. The US, the UK, Canada, Australia, and China are taking the lead, with Chinese operations spanning all continents except Antarctica.
Domestic stockpiles were inadequate for the extended trade disruptions caused by the four-year war. In response, the US Geological Survey increased its geological mapping to help search for important metals alongside new oil fields for fuel.
For decades, supply chains for critical minerals have grown increasingly vulnerable due to reliance on imports. In 2022, the US Geological Survey expanded the list of critical minerals to 50 to better reflect growing industrial needs, exacerbating this vulnerability.
Solar panels use silver due to its high conductivity, hydropower plants use chromium in their steel alloys, and geothermal plants need titanium to withstand abundant heat and pressure. Lithium—used in energy storage—is expected to see over 500% increased demand from 2020 to 2025.
Rather than focusing solely on new mining operations, which can take decades to establish, some startups are developing methods to extract these metals from the toxic waste of existing operations and thereby minimize environmental impacts. (Some readers may experience a paywall.)
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