The pharmaceutical industry evolved, in part, from the discovery of synthetic dyes

Merck developed MDMA in the early 1900s as part of its effort to create a blood clotting drug

The company's chemists were attempting to synthesize a substance that could compete with an existing patent for the best clot medicine of that time, hydrastinine. MDMA was the byproduct of that effort.

See how antidepressants were discovered

The decadeslong journey to the three major types of antidepressants began with medications designed to treat other maladies. Watch to learn more about how attempts to treat tuberculosis and blood pressure disorders led to new insights about neural chemistry and mood.

LSD (better known as acid) was created in 1938 by Swiss chemist Dr. Albert Hofmann

Lysergic acid diethylamide, better known as LSD or acid, was first developed synthetically in 1938 by Swiss chemist Dr. Albert Hofmann. It's since become a linchpin for an entire aesthetic, fueled a counterculture movement, and is being studied for potential therapeutic uses.

Monsanto got its start in the early 1900s producing saccharin

The company was originally called Monsanto Chemical Works and was founded in 1901 by John Francis Queeny who was then a wholesale drug buyer. He named the company Monsanto for his wife's maiden name. At first, the company began producing saccharin with borrowed equipment and secondhand machines, aiming to produce domestically what was then being imported from Germany. (Some users may encounter a paywall.)

Penicillin is considered one of history’s greatest medical breakthroughs

Experts widely rank penicillin’s discovery among the most important advances in medicine. It launched the antibiotic era, transformed once-deadly infections into treatable illnesses.

Synthetic opioids: a historical and clinical review

In the 19th century, researchers began synthesizing and isolating poppy plant alkaloids, leading to the invention of morphine, codeine, heroin, oxycodone, and others. These highly addictive variants eventually gave rise to illicit use and a widespread underground market, laying the foundation for the current opioid crisis.

The history of iconic pigments used in seven famous paintings

While art paints can be bought by the bucket at any craft store today, pigments throughout history have been difficult to come by. Art historian Kelly Grovier traces the fascinating history of pigments that make up hidden layers in masterpieces from Picasso and Hokusai’s Prussian Blue to Vermeer’s shade of red.

The history of chemistry, from alchemists to probing atoms before World War I

Those involved in the predecessor of the modern scientific discipline engaged in experimentation to develop recipes that would transform ordinary matter into gold and to create medicines, cosmetics, dyes, and alloys. Over the course of centuries, scientists identified unique elements, organized them based on their properties in the periodic table, and eventually developed the technology to discover the internal structure of atoms.

Making industrial chemicals with synthetic biology

A new report forecasts that synthetic biology will transform from creating niche, environmentally friendly products to creating new molecules within the next decade.

How nylon was created

Nylon, one of the most ubiquitous materials in the world, was invented in 1935. Chemist Wallace Carothers was hired by American conglomerate DuPont to perform research. After seven years of work he produced nylon, the first wholly synthetic fabric. Carothers’ life ended tragically, but his contributions revolutionized everything from military equipment to women’s fashion.

Wood that changed the color of water was the earliest recorded example of fluorescence

Lignum nephriticum, a tea used to treat kidney and urinary illnesses, was described in the 16th century as derived from white wood that turned water a bluish hue. However, in the 17th century, accounts described the wood as reddish and creating a kaleidoscope of colors in water. In 1915, the sources were identified as two different woods, which absorb UV radiation and emit visible light.

Poison ivy was sent to Europe in the 1600s as an exotic, ornamental oddity

The plants were grown in the English royal gardens at Kew, the Faculty of Medicine in Paris, and a few other locations.

At the beginning of the 20th century, a group of young men ate standard American food—replete with food additives like borax and formaldehyde—as part of government research to better understand food safety.

Watch how Sanger sequencing kickstarted the first generation of DNA sequencing

Sanger sequencing is a foundational DNA sequencing technology developed in 1977. The Nobel Prize-winning discovery uses fluorescent dyes at the end of DNA chains, which are sorted by length through electrophoresis, to determine the order of nucleotide bases.

Radioactivity was accidentally discovered when uranium left marks on photographic plates

In 1896, Henri Becquerel had been exploring phosphorescence—the emission of light of one color after an object is exposed to another color. He expected these emissions to come from objects exposed to sunlight, but he observed emissions after an overcast day.

Alkaptonuria was the first identified genetic disorder

In 1902, a rare recessive mutation was determined to cause alkaptonuria—a disease that induces dark pigmentation of connective tissue. The responsible gene was not isolated until the 1990s.

How scientists are using molecules found in acidophiles to develop new medical treatments

The Berkeley Pit, an open-pit copper mine in Butte, Montana, that ceased operations in 1982 and is now filled with highly acidic water, is home to various species of fungi and yeast. These extremophiles produce unique compounds that may have anti-inflammatory benefits and have already been used to create an antibiotic for staph infections.

Poison ivy was sent to Europe in the 1600s as an exotic, ornamental oddity, where it was purposefully grown in the English royal gardens at Kew, the Faculty of Medicine in Paris, and a few other locations.

A French Army surgeon discovered that malaria is a parasitic disease in 1880—but scientists were initially skeptical

Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran won the Nobel Prize for his work "on the role played by protozoa" in causing diseases. His work included discovering and reporting the malaria-causing parasite in the blood of a patient suffering from malaria.

The birth of the multivitamin

In 1912, biochemist Kazimierz Funk, often anglicized as Casimir Funk, proposed that there existed an essential nutrient in food that could prevent deficiency diseases, such as scurvy or rickets. This article explores the origin of the multivitamin, an invention that has garnished...

Pill bottles have often been orange to help protect medication from UV light

Amber pill bottles were introduced in 1968 to keep medications potent while allowing patients to see how much medication they had left. The color has since become universally associated with prescription medication.

Cholera was called the 'Blue Death'

In the mid-1800s—when John Snow identified cholera in London—the disease was known simply as the "Blue Death." That's because blood would thicken in patients' veins when they were struggling with extreme dehydration. As a result, their skin would turn a blueish hue as their blood was starved of oxygen.

Nail art can be traced back to 5,000 BCE

Archaeologists discovered Egyptian mummies with nail art and henna-tinted fingertips. The trend would continue informally for centuries until Revlon introduced modern nail polish in 1932.

Visualizing the global supply chain of medicine

The typical medicine we consume is the end result of a complex global supply chain involving highly specialized compartmentalization. Most medicine was made locally until open trade policies enabled global trade in the 1980s. This visual essay is...

Cell theory originated from microscopic observations of cork and dental plaque

In the mid-1600s, Robert Hooke identified compartment-like structures—which he called cells—in cork, and Anton van Leeuwenhoek discovered bacteria in samples of his dental scrapings. Almost 200 years later, Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann showed that plants and animals, respectively, are composed of cells, proving that cells are the foundation of all living things.

Even in recent history, adaptations to the environment drove human evolution

Through genetics, environmental pressures, and cultural influences, humans have evolved to tolerate lactose, develop varying skin pigmentation, and acquire genetic resistance to diseases like bubonic plague. The metabolic and digestive systems of Indigenous peoples have adapted to their diet, which is influenced by the availability of food and water.

Some say baseball's drug problem goes back to the late 1800s

At age 32, pitcher James “Pud” Galvin was feeling tired and decided to take "the Brown-Séquard elixir," which contained a testicular fluid from dogs and guinea pigs, believed to invigorate tired bodies. It might've worked: Galvin pitched a two-hit shutout the next day.

The first line of 'immortal' human cells, which can divide indefinitely and are used in scientific research, was nonconsensually taken from a Black woman.

Massive blooms of microscopic plankton called dinoflagellates produce the neon blue light seen in glowing tides.

Learn more about the history of fireworks, which dates back to an accidental invention during an alchemist's quest for information about immortality.

Budweiser stores yeast derived from the original 1800s strain in a secret bunker, which only the Head of Yeast Management can access—not even the CEO

As of 2025, the most cited papers in science include a review of graphene, methods to improve image recognition, streamlining electron density calculations, and optimizing protein studies.

Learn how monoclonal antibodies, which mimic the body's antibodies, can fight diseases like Ebola.

Volcanic activity may have triggered the Black Death by spewing gases that led to crop failures in Europe, thus forcing the import of grain ships with plague-infested fleas.

Dorothy's famous entrance into Oz in 'The Wizard of Oz' relied on analog tricks, including a body double and sepia-toned paint, as much as it did on technology

The most expensive ad of all time was for Chanel No. 5 perfume and cost roughly $33M to produce in 2004—about $57M in today's dollars.

Mid-century modern graphic designers, known for their bright colors and bold lines in advertising, also found success with children's books.

Long before Major League Baseball began allowing instant replay for balls and strikes, an umpire reluctantly used the technology to determine whether a hit was a home run, a move that inadvertently ushered in a new era for the sport.

Some Pokémon have been named after real and fictional organisms, while some real-world species have been named after Pokémon, such as Chilicola charizard and Binburrum zapdos.

English mathematician Ada Lovelace wrote the first computer algorithm a century before computers existed and hypothesized that computing devices would one day be able to compose music—foreseeing the generative AI systems of today.

Georgia O'Keeffe's flower paintings are often assumed to be sexual, though the artist claimed she was simply interested in highlighting the beauty of flowers that most people neglect

'Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone,' a work by American painter Thomas Moran, inspired Congress to establish Yellowstone National Park.

The original copy of the Declaration of Independence is not a pristine document, and even features a smudged anonymous handprint in the bottom left corner.

To reduce wrinkles in clothing, research recommends gentle wash cycles with more water and tumble drying with smaller loads and longer times.

A century of Billboard issues documenting the evolution of popular music.

Fear or disgust related to clusters of holes and cracks, called trypophobia, may stem from evolutionary processes to help us avoid pathogens.

The word 'jazz' evolved from 'jasm,' 19th-century American slang for 'energy'

Sony set the standard for cylinder-shaped batteries when it repurposed manufacturing equipment used to make rolls of magnetic recording tape.

While the first exchange-traded fund (a 'basket' of different assets that can be bought and sold on a stock exchange) in the US only launched in 1993, the global ETF market has grown to more than $10T in the short time since.

For centuries, it was common to sleep in two shifts: a few hours at the beginning of the night, and a longer period beginning around midnight