The history of chemistry, from alchemists to probing atoms before World War I

The history of the periodic table and how it hinted at atoms possessing internal structure

In 1869, more than two decades before the discovery of electrons, Russian chemist Dmitrii Mendeleev organized known elements by atomic weight and chemical properties using index cards. His organization revealed previously undiscovered elements and identified patterns in the reactivity of elements, which would later be linked to each element's outermost electron shell. (Some readers may experience a paywall.)

The history of molecular gastronomy, from thickening yolks with alcohol to making art with food

Before understanding why they worked, humans used scientific principles, including designing solutions and analyzing outcomes, to develop preservation methods like curing meat and fermenting vegetables. By the 20th century, the application of industrialized food preparation to smaller kitchens set the stage for the subdiscipline of food science.

Scientists turn alchemists, transforming transform lead into gold

Fulfilling alchemists' dreams, scientists at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) transmute lead into gold. While the 86 billion gold nuclei produced were short-lived, the experiment sheds light on how electromagnetic fields can play a critical role in nuclear transmutation.

Create anything from the elements in Little Alchemy 2

Various ancient cultures believed the most abundant substances in the world were its basic elements: earth, water, air, and fire. We may know better now, but you can make almost anything from those four things. Little Alchemy 2 is a fun, cartoonish game that allows users to create more complex items from simple substances.

Learn more about the history of fireworks, which dates back to an accidental invention during an alchemist's quest for information about immortality.

The simple grandeur of atomic theory

Is the universe made up of a continuous substance, or a finite amount of tiny, indivisible atoms? The atomic hypothesis, largely vindicated in the 20th century, was forgotten for nearly 2,000 years after first being formulated by the Greek philosopher Democritus. Learn more about the theory and its implications for science and human life with this reflective essay.

The history of metallurgy: an interactive timeline

Humans have long been shaping metals into useful tools and aesthetic accessories. By 8,700 BCE, humans already had mastered four types of casting copper. Within a few thousand years, people were combining metals to make the alloy bronze and had...

Building the first atomic bomb required unprecedented coordination

Creating the first atomic bombs demanded breakthroughs in physics, engineering, and logistics—uniting elite scientists with tens of thousands of workers across the US. This in-depth history explains how the Manhattan Project overcame those challenges.

At the beginning of the 20th century, a group of young men ate standard American food—replete with food additives like borax and formaldehyde—as part of government research to better understand food safety.

Radioactive elements can generate electricity, sterilize products, and date artifacts

Since their discovery in the 1890s, these substances have been incorporated throughout our daily lives, from treating food packaging and improving microbial safety to their presence in smoke detectors and gauges for ice cream aeration.

Before discovering cells, life was believed to emerge suddenly from inorganic matter

Popularized by Aristotle in the 4th century BCE, spontaneous generation was used to explain phenomena like mice appearing in seemingly sealed grain storage. The invention of the compound microscope in the late 16th century led to the identification of cells as the basic unit of life, but it was not until 1855 that their origin from preexisting cells was established.

How scientists discovered helium from sunlight over a decade before seeing it on Earth

In 1868, using tools that dispersed light into its constituent colors like a prism, astronomers Pierre Jules César Janssen and Joseph Norman Lockyer independently identified a bright yellow line in the solar spectrum that didn't match any known element. Fourteen years later, amid continued skepticism over the existence of a new element, the same spectral signature was observed in lava on Earth.

See how fireworks are made and learn how metals like magnesium and copper are responsible for different colors.

Learn more about the history of fireworks, which date back to an accidental invention during an alchemist's quest for information about immortality

When bamboo in China was tossed into fire in 200 BCE, there was an explosion. About 1000 years later, around 800 CE, an alchemist searching for secrets to immortality mixed sulfur, charcoal, and potassium nitrate together, leading to gunpowder. That mixture was then packed into bamboo or paper tubes, leading to fireworks.

The history of blood, as told by a hematologist

Since ancient times, blood has been seen as a semi-magical substance. Alchemists theorized it was a mixture of the four elements. Others proposed it was one of four bodily fluids whose balance dictated health. This 2019 essay by a hematologist reviews blood's reputation across cultures and centuries.

The history of soap and how it forms bathtub scum and white spots in old oil paintings

Soap has been produced since at least 2,200 BCE via a chemical reaction between fats or oils and a base. This creates salts that act as molecular bridges, helping water lift dirt and grease from surfaces. The same chemistry produces scum when metals in hard water bind to soap molecules, as well as white spots in paintings when metal ions in pigments react with fatty acids in the oil binder.

The cosmic dark ages: before stars existed

The theories behind the Big Bang suggest the process of the universe beginning to the creation of stable, neutral atoms took just half a million years. But the transition from such atoms to star formation took surprisingly much longer, upwards of 100 million years. Why? This deep dive explores the science behind the unique physical composition of the so-called cosmic dark ages.

English chemist Rosalind Franklin (1920 - 1958) on the importance of science

"Science and everyday life cannot and should not be separated. Science, for me, gives a partial explanation of life."

Exploring World War I technology on the battlefield

Industrialization brought massive changes to warfare during the Great War. Newly-invented killing machines begat novel defense mechanisms, which, in turn spurred the development of even deadlier technologies. Nearly every aspect of what we would consider modern warfare debuted on World War I battlefields. Starting with soldiers on horseback carrying lances and ending in poison gas, machine guns, and aerial battles, this gallery shows the first tools of modern warfare.

How a government chemist founded the FDA—by poisoning people

The Poison Squad tells the story of government chemist Dr. Harvey Wiley who, determined to banish these dangerous substances from dinner tables, took on the powerful food manufacturers and their allies.

LSD (better known as acid) was created in 1938 by Swiss chemist Dr. Albert Hofmann

Lysergic acid diethylamide, better known as LSD or acid, was first developed synthetically in 1938 by Swiss chemist Dr. Albert Hofmann. It's since become a linchpin for an entire aesthetic, fueled a counterculture movement, and is being studied for potential therapeutic uses.

Scientists determine the smells of objects in outer space

Using spectrographic techniques, scientists determine the chemical composition of planetary atmospheres, comets, and other objects in space. Combining these chemicals in labs on Earth has revealed locations in space that smell like nail polish remover, rotten fish, and urine.

The ancient Romans invented the first known artificial sweetener—it involved lead

The product was known as "sugar of lead." It was made by boiling wine in lead pots, concentrating the grapes' natural sugars and adding sweetness from the lead that leached into the grapes. The substance was used until roughly the 1880s for medicinal purposes and also to sweeten wine. (Some users may encounter a paywall.)

The 2019 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded for lithium-ion battery development

Stanley Whittingham developed the first functional lithium battery in the early 1970s, while John Goodenough doubled its electrical potential in 1980 by replacing the cathode, thereby enhancing its commercial viability. Five years later, Akira Yoshino developed an anode using carbon material, reducing the risk of flammability.

Two-thirds of antibiotic classes were made between the 1940s and 1960s

The vast majority of bacterial treatments were developed during the "Golden Age of Antibiotics," an era of rapid innovation and drug discovery that led to the reduction of millions of deaths worldwide. Since 1970, only eight new antibiotic classes have been discovered.

Minerals, crystals, rocks, and gems explained

Have you ever wondered what differentiates a mineral from a rock or a crystal from a gem? This three-minute video from the American Museum of Natural History elaborates on the unique properties and compositions that separate minerals, rocks,...

While atoms are normally made of protons, neutrons, and electrons, exotic ones have been built with antimatter—alternate versions of normal matter that live for fractions of a second and are about a billion times as rare.

A short history of space exploration

Let us to take you back through the timeline of space exploration and its rich, fascinating history, starting in 1946, with a rudimentary German military rocket.

How did archaeology come to be?

Archaeology, also spelled archeology, is the scientific study of the material remains of past human life and activities. So when did it become an official body of science? Britannica answers this question and more in this article on the history of...

The history of many kitchen appliances involves unexpected discoveries and applications, including wartime radar turned hamster defroster and replacing an 'ice king' with heat-stealing boxes.

As of 2025, the most cited papers in science include a review of graphene, methods to improve image recognition, streamlining electron density calculations, and optimizing protein studies.

The name 'Silicon Valley' arose from the founding of Shockley Semiconductor Laboratory in Fairchild Semiconductor in 1956-57, founded near Stanford University in Palo Alto

Against his wishes, Albert Einstein's brain was removed before his cremation, and the pathologist responsible stored it for decades in mason jars within a beer cooler.

Poison ivy was sent to Europe in the 1600s as an exotic, ornamental oddity, where it was purposefully grown in the English royal gardens at Kew, the Faculty of Medicine in Paris, and a few other locations.

The term 'algorithm' originated from the Latinized name of al-Khwārizmī, a 9th-century mathematician whose works introduced Arabic numerals and the decimal-based numeral system to Europe and whose treatise 'Al-Jabr' gave algebra its name.

Trace how the Bill of Rights, inspired by centuries of political theory, took shape between 1774 and 1789.

An investigation suggests a Scottish island became awash in forever chemicals via seafoam and seaspray—raising questions about what that means for the safety of other coastal areas.

Scientists can determine Earth's past climate conditions by analyzing air trapped in microscopic bubbles within ice cores—columns of compressed snow layers that build up over hundreds of thousands of years.

The Brothers Grimm were lawyers before they were storytellers, and became interested in fairy tales as they began investigating how rules and customs had been passed down through cultures.

The most expensive ad of all time was for Chanel No. 5 perfume and cost roughly $33M to produce in 2004—about $57M in today's dollars.

Walt Disney's early film 'Alice's Wonderland' was a groundbreaking innovation in the silent film era

Hear about the 250-year history of the United States Postal Service, complete with some of its strangest deliveries, important innovations, and the figures that made it an American institution.

Astronauts have repaired genetic damage in space using CRISPR—a molecular tool that can make precise changes to DNA and is used in single-celled organisms to attack invasive viruses.

The word 'jazz' evolved from 'jasm,' 19th-century American slang for 'energy'

20,000 letters to the advice columnist 'Dear Abby' provide insight into prevailing sex, religion, and LGBTQ fears, anxieties, and concerns from the 1950s onward.

Stanford built a Google Maps for the Roman Empire, revealing how much it cost to travel in the ancient world

The Mona Lisa's celebrity status and repeated restorations have obscured what made the painting so revolutionary for its time

Explore a list of the 100 best novels of all time, compiled by some of the world's best living writers, including Salman Rushdie, Stephen King, and Jennifer Egan.

US intelligence allegedly pursued more than 600 schemes to assassinate Cuban revolutionary Fidel Castro.

See how each of the more than two million known species relates to each other—and to common ancestors—in this zoomable tree of life.