EOS and maximum length tokens tell an LLM when to stop generating a response

Tokenization breaks text into pieces that LLMs use to process language

Instead of understanding the meaning of words, large language models break up sentences into words and subwords, assigning each a set of numbers called tokens. Grammar rules are then "learned" by finding associations between these sets of numbers.

LLMs explained simply and quickly

Large language models generate responses by predicting one token at a time, based on patterns they’ve learned from massive datasets. This explainer covers their core components: data, architecture, training, and how transformer models use context to simulate conversation.

Explore rankings of large language models

The SEAL LLM Leaderboards provide benchmarks for LLMs by assessing them against agentic, frontier, and safety tasks, providing insights into each model's strengths, deficiencies, and failures.

The longest word in English is 189,819 letters long

The wildly-winding word (so long that we can't fit it here) is the proper name for titin, a protein that keeps muscles elastic.

How end-to-end encryption protects messages, even from service providers

Using symmetric and asymmetric cryptography, data is encrypted on the sender's device before being transmitted across application servers that lack the key needed to decrypt it. The message is not decrypted until it reaches the recipient's device, which uses their private key to recover the plaintext. E2EE's effectiveness has led to its adoption by WhatsApp and Signal.

Post-treatment Lyme disease syndrome may be caused by bacterial remnants in the liver

PTLDS, which refers to lingering symptoms of Lyme after antibiotic treatment, is an area of active research. Rodent research published in 2025 suggests that these ongoing symptoms may potentially be due to the body's inflammatory response to lingering cellular components from the bacteria that cause Lyme, Borrelia burgdorferi. In rodents, components of the bacteria's cellular wall may remain in the liver after the bacteria were eliminated with antibiotics.

In 2023, there were nearly as many payloads in LOE as trackable pieces of debris

In 2021, the European Space Agency estimated that more than 130 million space debris objects larger than 1 millimeter were in low Earth orbit, though only about 22,000 were being tracked. As of late 2025, the tracked total exceeds 49,000.

Characterizing Emily Dickinson's distinctive poetic style

Dickinson's poems are generally short, untitled works that are lyrical, which means they seek to express feelings rather than narrate stories. They're also infused with common meter, a rhythm used in much popular music, and deploy frequent dashes as both punctuation and an idiosyncratic poetic device.

Long-term evolution experiments use microbe's short generations to speed up selection

With quick generations of microbes, scientists can speed up the evolutionary process, with projects like the LTEE in California running for 40 years and generating 80,000 generations of E. coli.

As of 2025, the best cosmological model of the universe includes dark energy

The Lambda cold dark matter model uses the Greek letter to denote the presence of a cosmological constant version of dark energy, alongside slow-moving dark matter and ordinary visible matter. It can account for the observed distribution of galaxies, the structure of the cosmic microwave background, the acceleration of the universe, and the abundance of hydrogen.

Memecoins are a type of cryptocurrency—a form of digital currency with a wide variety of uses—created around popular 'memes,' or viral internet jokes.

How to stake Ethereum

Ethereum switched to a proof-of-stake method for validating transactions in recent years, and now investors can stake 32 ether to participate and earn rewards. Several ways to get involved in ether staking exist, with varying levels of income, difficulty, and impact. Some allow users to stake less than 32 ether by pooling funds with other users, while others require less advanced hardware. Read about the different staking methods here.

NFTs are unique assets that exist on the blockchain

This SNL skit accurately defines non-fungible tokens in a song and skit. They are cryptographic tokens that represent digital assets like art, and their value can be volatile.

When the US hits the debt ceiling, the Treasury uses emergency measures to avoid default

After the US reached its debt ceiling in January 2023, the Treasury deployed "extraordinary measures" to keep paying obligations. This article explains the steps, how they work, and why they last only for a limited time. (Some readers may experience a paywall.)

Electron accelerators are used to create X-ray lasers

In an X-ray free-electron laser, electromagnetic fields are used to accelerate and move electrons in wiggling patterns, causing them to emit synchronized, high-energy X-rays. This resulting light beam can strike targets up to 120 times per second to create movies of changing molecular structures and phenomena.

Compare various El Niño-Southern Oscillations using maps of atmospheric and ocean variables

Because the intensity of the phases in the cycle is sensitive to small variations in atmospheric and ocean conditions and depends on complex interactions between these two systems, no two El Niño or La Niña events are identical. This contributes to the variability in the length of each phase, which is why an ENSO can last as little as two years or as long as seven.

'The true measure of all our actions is how long the good in them lasts.'

- Queen Elizabeth II (1926-2022)

Only 21 million bitcoin will ever be created—what happens then?

Bitcoin is a popular cryptocurrency with a finite supply, and the issuance of new bitcoins is currently offered as a reward for verifying the transactions on the blockchain. Experts say the currency won't reach its limit until the year 2140, and miners may ultimately rely on transaction fees.

The last day of the Lunar New Year culminates in the Festival of Lanterns

The Festival of Lanterns celebrates the first full moon of the year. Elaborate, colorful light displays are held throughout China, with many regions having their own unique traditions, from the candle-lit lanterns in the south to the elaborate lighted ice sculptures common in the northeast.

An 'EGOT' is one of the most sought-after achievements in entertainment

EGOT stands for "Emmy, Grammy, Oscar, Tony," an informal title for the performers who've won all four awards. Liza Minnelli, Elton John, and others have earned the title, though other superstars, like Bruce Springsteen, are just one award away from joining the exclusive club.

The first lithium-ion battery was invented at ExxonMobil

Initially a side project that became a priority due to the 1973 oil crisis, the battery's flammability risks and manufacturing challenges, along with the waning crisis, led the company to shut down its battery program. Other researchers would gradually improve upon published prototype designs in the next decade.

Simulate the decay of a radioactive substance to visualize its half-life

By definition, the half-life is the amount of time it takes for half of a radioactive sample to decay. With each half-life that has elapsed, half of the starting sample is left, leaving less to decay each time. This results in the number of undecayed atoms decreasing exponentially, with less stable substances having shorter half-lives and decreasing exponentially more rapidly.

40 key stock market terms, explained

Liquidity. Forex. Capitalization. Blue chip stocks. These are just a few pieces of stock market vocabulary most people who don't spend all day on a trading floor might not know. Thankfully, we found a fun infographic that makes it easier to learn what 40 key stock market terms mean and why each of them matters.

VO2 max measures the body's ability to use oxygen to produce energy

VO2 max is the maximum rate at which the body can use oxygen to aerobically produce energy—adenosine triphosphate—for use during intense exercise. Aerobic exercise increases VO2 max, counteracting age-related decline by increasing the body's capillary count and remodeling the heart's left ventricle, increasing the amount of blood it pumps.

Watch video samples created by AI

Sora, OpenAI’s video generation tool, can create up to 60 seconds of photorealistic video footage featuring highly detailed scenes, complex camera motion, and multiple characters with vibrant emotions from a text prompt.

A tube-and-diaphragm system tells gas pumps when to stop providing fuel

As long as air passes freely through a small hole at the end of the nozzle, the diaphragm is inflated, and fuel flows normally. Once fluid reaches the hole, the change in pressure from the difference in air and fluid densities collapses the diaphragm, which cuts the flow of gas.

Watch how algorithms can be designed to train themselves and self-improve without human input, to the point where the optimized code is too complex for programmers to understand.

While atoms are normally made of protons, neutrons, and electrons, exotic ones have been built with antimatter—alternate versions of normal matter that live for fractions of a second and are about a billion times as rare.

SpaceX's S-1 or 'prospectus' revealed many previously unknown details about the company, including its unprofitability despite doing $18.7B in revenue in 2025, exactly how many voting shares Elon Musk will have in the company (roughly 85%), and more.

Some coin denominations have ridges etched on their sides, partly to prevent counterfeiting, in a practice called 'reeding.'

Watch how deep-sea mining equipment collects and processes polymetallic nodules—metal-rich, potato-shaped rocks—from the ocean floor and creates environmentally damaging plumes of sediments.

Sunflowers have long been a symbol of nuclear disarmament because they can extract large amounts of radioactive cesium from soil.

Sony set the standard for cylinder-shaped batteries when it repurposed manufacturing equipment used to make rolls of magnetic recording tape.

Most of the observable universe's volume consists of voids and supervoids—enormous regions of space with little to no galaxies, stars, or light.

Fireworks make a loud booming sound after exploding due to air expanding faster than the speed of sound.

Indefinite cloning of some endangered species may not sustain their longevity because cloning success rates decrease as genetic mutations accumulate.

The US Constitution is widely regarded as the longest-standing written national constitution still in force—see how it has influenced rights worldwide.

Tattoos remain visible on your skin thanks to immune cells called macrophages

Apeirophobia is an overwhelming fear of living forever, perhaps stemming from the brain's inability to conceptualize an infinite life.

Browse a detailed visual analysis of over 200,000 similes—comparisons that often use 'like' or 'as'—from popular fiction to see how frequently writers the same idiomatic expressions.

US consumers collectively owe more than $1T to credit card companies—almost as much as they owe in auto loans.

Scientists have struggled to pin down Ebola's natural reservoir species for decades, but the available evidence suggests that it's very likely fruit and insect-eating bats found in Africa.

Double world record holder Hunter Ewen helped conquer his fear of balloons, called globophobia, by training to win Guinness World Record titles for balloon inflation.

The rivalry between Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson centered on federalism—the question of how much power the federal government should hold relative to the states.

Read a deep dive on the 'all-purpose healing' peptide BPC-157.

Famed poet TS Eliot rejected the manuscript for George Orwell's political fable 'Animal Farm,' writing that its criticism of authoritarianism was not 'the right point of view.'

The word 'jazz' evolved from 'jasm,' 19th-century American slang for 'energy'

While El Niño moves warm Pacific Ocean waters east along the equator, La Niña moves them west, shifting where rainfall will become more common for months.

For centuries, it was common to sleep in two shifts: a few hours at the beginning of the night, and a longer period beginning around midnight

Search a massive database of over 4 decades of clues from the TV quiz show 'Jeopardy!'