Tattoos are permanent markings made by pigments injected beneath the outer layer of skin. They remain indelible by harnessing immune cells called macrophages, which perceive ink as a foreign body and try to digest it. Ink particles can’t be broken down, so macrophages hold on to them, helping maintain the tattoo pattern. Historically, tattoos were tapped into the skin with sharpened objects. In fact, the word “tattoo” comes from “tatatau,” the Polynesian word for “to strike.”
Hours of research by our editors, distilled into minutes of clarity.
Tattoos last because immune cells trap ink beneath the skin—but there’s more to the story. This overview looks at how ancient cultures used tattoos for status, spirituality and punishment; how technology like the electric tattoo machine transformed the art form, and where innovations like smart tattoos could take it next.
Tattoos have waxed and waned in popularity over the centuries, depending upon the social standing of their wearers. Throughout US history, they were often considered taboo. However, growing acceptance of tattoos means they’re more visible in the public eye.
Although tattoos are fairly common in the US, some taboos remain. A 2017 study in the Journal of Social Psychology found discrimination against tattoos is alive and well, and that even individuals with tattoos associate them with negative stereotypes.
Tattoo ink is injected under the skin, which can leave the body open to infections and allergic reactions. While many tattoo artists are licensed professionals who follow sanitary guidelines, that’s not always the case.
“Tatatau” roughly translates to “strike,” a reference to the ancient process, which involved tapping ink into the skin with sharpened objects, like the bronze implements used circa 1450 BCE in Egypt, below.
With hundreds of ink manufacturers, all unregulated by the FDA, it’s hard to determine the exact ingredients in tattoo inks. Some pigments may contain carcinogenic chemicals, such as heavy metals and aromatic hydrocarbons, or even bacterial contaminants. Red ink often causes allergic reactions and may even contain lead or mercury.
Our skin is a fascinating organ that wants nothing more than to protect our bodies from the outside world. Tattoos penetrate that protective wall to inject ink directly into the sensitive, immunologically rich layer of skin known as the dermis.
Macrophages are a robust part of the human immune system. These large cells engulf invading particles, like viruses and bacteria, and use enzymes to break them apart. They perceive ink as a foreign body but can't digest them. Macrophages hold on to the ink, helping maintain the tattoo pattern.
Ötzi is the corpse of "the Iceman" found in the Alps along the Italian and Austrian border in 1991. His mummified body was covered with lines and crosses along the “hard-working” areas of his body, signifying their potential application for therapeutic pain management.
Ötzi the Iceman, discovered in 1991, is one of the oldest human mummies ever found—and his 61 tattoos remain a mystery. This explainer looks at how researchers believe the tattoos were made, what their placement suggests about ancient medicine and culture, and why we’re still piecing together their true purpose today.
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