The history of Vannevar Bush, who influenced the creation of hyperlinks and the NSF

The history of the National Science Foundation Network, a precursor of the internet

Although ARPANET connected various national laboratories and supercomputing facilities by the 1970s to facilitate scientific collaboration, the system was slow and required highly trained operators. The launch of NSFNET in 1986 provided a more flexible and powerful network that went on to connect over 170 academic and research communities and link to its European counterpart, EASInet.

The origin of the National Science Foundation and why World War II led to its founding

Before World War II, research institutions were funded by endowments or private companies whose priorities stifled the curiosity-driven science that fueled significant breakthroughs and innovation. The NSF was established in 1950 to promote independent scientific progress through basic research, which is focused on knowledge acquisition rather than commercial applications, conducted at national colleges and universities.

View an historical mural depicting the NSF's impact across seven decades

From 1950 to 2020, the National Science Foundation supported discovery-based, exploratory research that led to numerous breakthroughs, including the development of supercomputing centers, 3D printing technologies, biometric identification systems, an understanding of vector-borne illnesses, a DNA amplification technique, mobile meteorology units, and scientific education and literacy programming.

The foundation for computer viruses was published after its creator's death

In the late 1940s, Hungarian American mathematician, scientist, and engineer John von Neumann gave a series of lectures where he explained the theoretical framework for a computer program that could replicate itself—the von Neumann Universal Constructor. His lectures were later compiled and published in 1966, nine years after his death from cancer.

Explore an animated list of nine scientific breakthroughs funded by NASA, the NSF, and the NIH

Among the technologies made possible by the National Science Foundation and the National Institutes of Health were the CAPTCHA digital puzzles to block bots from accessing sites, the set of diabetes and obesity drugs that fall under the umbrella of GLP-1 receptor agonists, and various cordless appliances, including the handheld vacuum cleaner. (Some readers may experience a paywall.)

The funding behind Google's origin, including an NSF digital libraries grant

Over $4.5M in funding from the National Science Foundation was allocated to the Stanford Integrated Digital Library Project, which aimed to develop the infrastructure for an accessible universal library of digital information sources. Google cofounders Sergey Brin and Larry Page were working on this project when developing the PageRank search algorithm.

James Webb championed both space science and human spaceflight at NASA

As NASA Administrator during the 1960s, Webb prioritized a balanced approach between manned missions and scientific research, fostering advancements in astronomy, robotic exploration, and university involvement. Despite having no background in science or engineering, Webb oversaw more than 75 space science mission.

The name 'Silicon Valley' arose from the founding of Shockley Semiconductor Laboratory in Fairchild Semiconductor in 1956-57, founded near Stanford University in Palo Alto

How Congressional oversight can override confidentiality in the NSF's proposal review process

In 2014, to investigate claims that the NSF was funding wasteful research rather than proposals that served national interests, confidential grant files were provided and reviewed by members of the House Science Committee. The actions, led by Lamar Smith (R-TX), were denounced by the scientific research community. (Some readers may experience a paywall.)

US secrets: Project Paperclip

The US launched Project Paperclip in 1946, covertly recruiting over 1,500 German scientists to advance American military and space programs. Among them was Wernher von Braun, a key architect of the V-2 rocket who later became instrumental in NASA’s Apollo missions. While these scientists accelerated technological breakthroughs, their recruitment raised moral debates about overlooking wartime affiliations in the name of progress—questions that remain unresolved today.

An LSD scientist's role in a US mind control project

Within a decade of LSD's discovery, the US government had launched a secret initiative involving hypnosis and hallucinogens. LSD researcher Louis Jolyon West conducted experiments for the CIA's MKUltra project, which focused on the potential of mind control. He later took part in a criminal trial that hinged on testimony whose sourcing was seemingly inspired by MKUltra experiments. This article explores light shed by West's personal archive.

The American Research and Development Corporation is considered the first modern VC firm

Best known for investing in companies that wanted to utilize some of the technology developed during World War II, the ARDC’s cofounders all held prestigious positions at places like MIT and the Federal Reserve Bank of Boston.

Writer William Gibson invented the term 'cyberspace'

The science-fiction writer coined the term in his 1982 short story "Burning Chrome" to describe "a consensual hallucination experienced daily by billions of legitimate operators, in every nation, by children being taught mathematical concepts...A graphic representation of data abstracted from the banks of every computer in the human system. Unthinkable complexity. Lines of light ranged in the nonspace of the mind, clusters and constellations of data. Like city lights, receding."

The software for wikis—user-editable websites—was launched in 1995

Computer programmer Ward Cunningham created the WikiWikiWeb online application based on an offline system that helped track how ideas moved through his company. The application enabled users to collaborate and edit website content through a web browser, as well as link pages without requiring a structured navigation scheme.

Bob Noyce coinvented the integrated circuit, cofounded Intel and Fairchild Semiconductor, and is considered one of the founders of Silicon Valley

Some even called Noyce the “Mayor of Silicon Valley.” According to Steve Jobs, he was the “ultimate inventor, rebel, and entrepreneur.” This Founders episode dissects an article from 1983 that explains Noyce’s lasting impact.

A rich archive of the visual imagination of the Cold War era

The blog aggregates art, design, fashion, and technology from the atomic and space age, spanning mid-century American futurism and its Soviet counterpart. The content has a broad range: escape pods from a B-58 bomber sit alongside Tour de France caravan vehicles and unidentified industrial designs.

In the 1970s, a former NASA engineer pitched remote work as a solution to an energy crisis

His name was Jack Nilles, and he wrote a book that is considered the "founding document of telecommuting" in 1973 called "The Telecommunications-Transportation Tradeoff," coining the terms "telecommuting and telework." Nilles argued that telecommuting could serve as an "alternative to transportation," helping cut down on gridlocked traffic and reduce society's reliance on nonrenewable resources like oil. (Some users may experience a paywall.)

The Smithsonian was first funded by a man who never visited the US

The Smithsonian Institution was established through a gift in the will of James Smithson, a British scientist who never visited America but left his fortune to establish an institution dedicated to the "increase and diffusion of knowledge."

At the beginning of the 20th century, a group of young men ate standard American food—replete with food additives like borax and formaldehyde—as part of government research to better understand food safety.

Lewis and Clark’s journey became a blueprint for future exploration

Combining science, diplomacy, and logistics, the Corps of Discovery created a model for later expeditions—from charting the Arctic to NASA’s space missions.

The origin of LASIK eye surgery, from a lab incident to federal funding and widespread use

After a University of Michigan engineering student suffered retinal burns from an ultrashort pulse laser, researchers realized it could be used to reshape the cornea and improve a person's vision with greater precision than a scalpel and earlier laser technologies. Agencies, including the National Science Foundation, the National Institutes of Health, and the Department of Energy, provided funding to develop and commercialize the procedure.

Don Herbert, better known as 'Mr. Wizard,' was the predecessor to the 'Science Guy'

From 1951 to 1965, the former B-24 bomber pilot performed science experiments that home audiences could replicate on "Watch Mr. Wizard," inspiring about 50,000 Mr. Wizard Science Clubs throughout North America. Subsequent series, including "Mr. Wizard’s World" and "Teacher to Teacher with Mr. Wizard," ran on Nickelodeon until 1996.

Steve Bannon was made CEO of the company in charge of Biosphere 2 in 1994

After providing $200M to launch and upgrade B2 before its second mission, billionaire philanthropist Ed Bass appointed the future political strategist and then financial consultant to help find new investments and bring costs under control. Fearing interference from non-science experts, Biospherians from the first mission vandalized the project.

For her contributions, Grace Hopper received more than 40 honorary degrees

Beyond the scholarships, professorships, and awards named in her honor, President George Bush awarded Hopper the National Medal of Technology in 1991 for her work in developing computer programming languages that enhanced accessibility. In 1996, Hopper became only the second woman to have a US Navy warship named after her.

The inventor of the Dewey decimal system has a complicated legacy due to allegations of sexual harassment

Melvil Dewey—who created the system used to organize library books in nearly 150 countries and founded the American Library Association—was banned from the organization for 20 years after making unwanted advances on four librarians. He later paid to settle a harassment suit.

Bill Nye holds patents for three inventions and designs for a digital abacus

His pointe shoes feature a support structure to protect ballet dancers' toes during performance. The throwing technique trainer guides athletes in achieving the optimal form for throwing a ball, while the educational magnifying glass made from a plastic bag and water featured on his show.

How Chuck Norris 'Facts' gave birth to the modern meme

In the early 2000s, anonymous, absurdly hyperbolic jokes about one B-level action star suddenly appeared everywhere on the internet. "Chuck Norris Facts" were spawned by a high school senior, who'd noticed something funny online and taken it to the next level. As Ryan Hockensmith shows in this detailed history, Spector's joke laid the groundwork for the modern meme.

The idea for the Federal Reserve was conceived in secret in 1910—with bankers donning duck hunt gear for disguise while traveling to a remote country club on Georgia's Jekyll Island

The history of many kitchen appliances involves unexpected discoveries and applications, including wartime radar turned hamster defroster and replacing an 'ice king' with heat-stealing boxes.

Elk Cloner, the first computer virus to spread in public, was written as a practical joke by Richard Skrenta, a Pittsburgh high school student.

As of 2025, the most cited papers in science include a review of graphene, methods to improve image recognition, streamlining electron density calculations, and optimizing protein studies.

Experimental hantavirus vaccines and therapies, still under development, have long been funded by the US military.

English mathematician Ada Lovelace wrote the first computer algorithm a century before computers existed and hypothesized that computing devices would one day be able to compose music—foreseeing the generative AI systems of today.

The animatronic shark from Steven Spielberg's 'Jaws,' the first modern blockbuster, was a complex underwater apparatus called 'Bruce.'

Mid-century modern graphic designers, known for their bright colors and bold lines in advertising, also found success with children's books.

Explore fun facts from the USPS, including unique post office buildings, a stamp that traveled past Pluto, and more.

Jimmy Carter signed a 1978 bill that legalized home brewing, a move credited with kick-starting the craft beer industry.

Legendary architect Frank Lloyd Wright designed the SC Johnson headquarters in Wisconsin, aiming to make a cathedral-like workplace

The American Society of Civil Engineers' infrastructure report card gave the US a C in 2025, its highest grade since the project launched in 1998.

A Yale student wrote a profound essay about the consulting industry's influence on elite college students that was published in a book of her writing after she died in a post-graduation car accident.

Astronauts have repaired genetic damage in space using CRISPR—a molecular tool that can make precise changes to DNA and is used in single-celled organisms to attack invasive viruses.

How Amazon operates a 'flywheel' business model, a self-reinforcing cycle that drives continuous growth

Ebola is a filovirus, meaning it resembles a thread under a microscope, though it sometimes twists and can resemble a bowl of spaghetti.

US intelligence allegedly pursued more than 600 schemes to assassinate Cuban revolutionary Fidel Castro.

SpongeBob exemplifies Aristotle's philosophy for living well because he understands that happiness doesn't come from external factors like money, recognition, or power.

Recent research found that the brain doesn't seem to massively rewire following amputation—upending earlier beliefs about the cause of phantom limb pain.

Search a massive database of over 4 decades of clues from the TV quiz show 'Jeopardy!'

'Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone,' a work by American painter Thomas Moran, inspired Congress to establish Yellowstone National Park.

According to the physics of black holes, our 4D reality may be a hologram—a projection of information coded on a 2D surface on the edge of the universe.