The origin of the National Science Foundation and why World War II led to its founding

An overview of the National Science Foundation and the technologies it has helped fund

Established in 1950, the federal agency has provided billions of dollars to over 300,000 researchers, entrepreneurs, and students to conduct research across all seven continents. These funds have contributed to major technological achievements, from the invention of the internet to the first image of a black hole.

An analysis of the National Science Foundation's historical budget and spending

The NSF accounted for 0.1% of all federal spending in FY2024, with $9.39B—just over twice its FY1991 spending—out of $6.78T overall. Almost 99% of these funds ($9.29B) went to general science and basic research, with the rest allocated to national defense.

The history of the National Science Foundation Network, a precursor of the internet

Although ARPANET connected various national laboratories and supercomputing facilities by the 1970s to facilitate scientific collaboration, the system was slow and required highly trained operators. The launch of NSFNET in 1986 provided a more flexible and powerful network that went on to connect over 170 academic and research communities and link to its European counterpart, EASInet.

An organizational breakdown of the National Science Foundation's directorates

Each is responsible for supporting a different discipline within science, engineering, and education, such as the Directorate for Biological Sciences, the Directorate for Engineering, and the Directorate for STEM Education. Formed in 2022, the Directorate for Technology, Innovation, and Partnerships is the NSF's first new directorate in 30 years and is focused on growing industry and an equitable STEM workforce.

How the NSF Public Understanding of Science program fueled science interest and literacy

To support STEM education at all levels and in all settings, the NSF has invested in public-facing science projects since 1957. These investments produced science education storytelling and entertainment programming, including "Bill Nye the Science Guy," "The Magic School Bus," and the "Flight of the Butterflies" and "Blue Whales" IMAX films.

View the evolution of the National Science Foundation logo

When the agency was established in 1950, the logo featured an eagle holding a shield with symbols of a pyramid, a test tube, a microscope, and a lamp from which light radiated. Subsequent logos featured variations of a ring composed of people holding hands, which would eventually be redesigned to enclose a globe bearing the "NSF" abbreviation.

The history of Vannevar Bush, who influenced the creation of hyperlinks and the NSF

As director of the Office of Scientific Research and Development, Bush submitted a report outlining how to support basic research at American colleges and universities by establishing an independent funding agency, which laid the groundwork for the National Science Foundation. His idea for a Memex machine that connected microfilm content in "associative trails" of links would influence Douglas Engelbart's development of hypertext.

Understanding why Republicans have challenged funding for the NSF

Lack of Congressional support in funding the National Science Foundation has often been justified by the party's interest in cutting federal deficits and reducing waste for seemingly frivolous research projects. However, an analysis of NSF grant data from 1992 to 2018 shows that awards were given to Democratic constituencies at disproportionately higher rates than to Republican ones, despite a lack of evidence of partisanship in proposal reviews. (Some readers may experience a paywall.)

Why the structure of the National Science Board contributes to the NSF's nonpartisan design

After Congressional debates over the merits of having an independent agency versus one accountable to the president and the public, it was decided that the director and Board members would be presidentially appointed but serve staggered six-year terms. By replacing one-third of the Board's members every two years, each could outlast any single administration.

The first federal student loan program began in 1958

As the Cold War heated up, federal officials recognized the need to provide financial aid to students pursuing degrees in areas critical to national security, like science, math, and engineering. These programs evolved to broadly support the general population, both increasing access to college while acting as a driver of increased costs. This six-part series takes a deep dive into the history of federal student aid.

NASA was created by Congress in 1958

Created by Congress under the National Aeronautics and Space Act, NASA officially began in 1958, building on earlier aviation research and positioning the US to compete in the Space Race and lead global space exploration.

How the NSA has changed through history

The National Security Agency was born in the Cold War and then transformed by 9/11. This article answers all the basic questions you might have about the NSA, from what it does to how much data it collects to some of its useful intercepts.

World War II innovations helped advance car racing

Modern American auto racing began in the 1920s with bootleggers modifying cars to outrun authorities. World War II innovations like better engines and surplus parts fueled post-war racing. By 1947, Bill France Sr. founded NASCAR, creating a unified league with consistent rules, transforming stock car racing into one of America’s favorite sports.

The origin of atmospheric science while testing nuclear weapons during the Cold War

The arms race between the US and the Soviet Union saw both countries stockpiling and detonating hundreds of bombs underground, underwater, and in the atmosphere. To better predict where nuclear fallout would travel after these tests, scientists developed models that would serve as a foundation for those used to explain atmospheric circulation.

The American Research and Development Corporation is considered the first modern VC firm

Best known for investing in companies that wanted to utilize some of the technology developed during World War II, the ARDC’s cofounders all held prestigious positions at places like MIT and the Federal Reserve Bank of Boston.

US secrets: Project Paperclip

The US launched Project Paperclip in 1946, covertly recruiting over 1,500 German scientists to advance American military and space programs. Among them was Wernher von Braun, a key architect of the V-2 rocket who later became instrumental in NASA’s Apollo missions. While these scientists accelerated technological breakthroughs, their recruitment raised moral debates about overlooking wartime affiliations in the name of progress—questions that remain unresolved today.

The Smithsonian was first funded by a man who never visited the US

The Smithsonian Institution was established through a gift in the will of James Smithson, a British scientist who never visited America but left his fortune to establish an institution dedicated to the "increase and diffusion of knowledge."

Franklin D. Roosevelt's 1941 speech framed World War II as a global fight for universal rights

Eleven months before the attack on Pearl Harbor, President Roosevelt outlined four fundamental freedoms that, in his words, people "everywhere in the world" ought to enjoy—speech, worship, freedom from want, and freedom from fear.

The Ford Foundation helped expand America’s regional theater

In 1961, the philanthropic arm of Henry Ford’s massive empire seeded an initial grant of $9M to fund regional theaters around the United States. This was done to replicate the repertory theaters throughout Europe.

NATO was formed in 1949 to deter Soviet expansion and integrate Europe

Europe was in shambles after World War II, which saw 36 million Europeans killed, and the Soviets were looking to increase their influence. Beyond deterring the Soviets, the alliance sought to restore Europe and prevent nationalist militarism akin to the German Nazis and Italian Fascists.

The League of Nations was the predecessor to the UN—and the US never joined

The League of Nations—established in 1920 after World War I—was the first global organization aimed at maintaining world peace. Although US President Woodrow Wilson championed its creation, the United States never joined.

Why endowments took off at the turn of the century

After the Civil War, economic growth boosted philanthropy, much of it ending up in universities and colleges. Charles Eliot, the longtime president of Harvard, realized a university’s success was determined by how much money it could hold in the endowment. His approach to endowments radically changed their role in the modern university.

The name 'Silicon Valley' arose from the founding of Shockley Semiconductor Laboratory in Fairchild Semiconductor in 1956-57, founded near Stanford University in Palo Alto

The World Bank funds development in the world's poorest countries

Originally called the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, the World Bank was established in 1944 to assist in rebuilding war-damaged countries and has since grown to finance long-term economic development worldwide.

Alfred Nobel invented dynamite and later used his fortune to fund peace prizes

Nobel stabilized dangerous nitroglycerin to create dynamite, revolutionizing construction and mining in the 19th century. Despite his success with explosives, he was deeply disturbed by their destructive potential and redirected his legacy toward rewarding human progress.

Why the SEC was started

The Securities and Exchange Commission was created during the Great Depression to restore public trust in financial markets after the 1929 crash. Established in 1934, it enforces transparency, investigates fraud, and protects investors by requiring companies to disclose accurate information and holding violators accountable.

At the beginning of the 20th century, a group of young men ate standard American food—replete with food additives like borax and formaldehyde—as part of government research to better understand food safety.

Roughly 43 million US borrowers owe roughly $1.7T in student debt, the second-largest source of consumer debt behind mortgages.

The idea for the Federal Reserve was conceived in secret in 1910—with bankers donning duck hunt gear for disguise while traveling to a remote country club on Georgia's Jekyll Island

The history of many kitchen appliances involves unexpected discoveries and applications, including wartime radar turned hamster defroster and replacing an 'ice king' with heat-stealing boxes.

Learn more about the history of fireworks, which dates back to an accidental invention during an alchemist's quest for information about immortality.

In 1915, workers recovered a submarine-like vessel from the Chicago River, prompting fears of German espionage

Experimental hantavirus vaccines and therapies, still under development, have long been funded by the US military.

How fusion—which releases energy when two lighter atoms combine to form a heavier atom—differs from fission

Before humans, the Soviet Union and the United States sent animals—including apes, dogs, and cats—to space during the Space Race.

The USPS spent $3.97B in 2024, accounting for .058% of the federal budget.

The US Constitution is widely regarded as the longest-standing written national constitution still in force—see how it has influenced rights worldwide.

As of 2025, the most cited papers in science include a review of graphene, methods to improve image recognition, streamlining electron density calculations, and optimizing protein studies.

The first line of 'immortal' human cells, which can divide indefinitely and are used in scientific research, was nonconsensually taken from a Black woman.

In 1945, Surrealist artist Salvador Dalí and legendary animator Walt Disney began collaborating on a short film that was not completed until 2003, years after both men had died.

Hedge funds, the private investment firms that trade a wide swath of financial assets, make money by imposing steep fees on investors and from the fund's investment performance.

After the Boston Tea Party, colonists switched to coffee, which became the main morning drink for revolutionaries.

SpaceX's S-1 or 'prospectus' revealed many previously unknown details about the company, including its unprofitability despite doing $18.7B in revenue in 2025, exactly how many voting shares Elon Musk will have in the company (roughly 85%), and more.

Legendary architect Frank Lloyd Wright designed the SC Johnson headquarters in Wisconsin, aiming to make a cathedral-like workplace

Most of the observable universe's volume consists of voids and supervoids—enormous regions of space with little to no galaxies, stars, or light.

Scientists can determine Earth's past climate conditions by analyzing air trapped in microscopic bubbles within ice cores—columns of compressed snow layers that build up over hundreds of thousands of years.

Up to a million Girl Scouts sell about 200 million cookie boxes every spring, generating $800 million, largely because refusing a child is frowned upon

Famed poet TS Eliot rejected the manuscript for George Orwell's political fable 'Animal Farm,' writing that its criticism of authoritarianism was not 'the right point of view.'

'Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone,' a work by American painter Thomas Moran, inspired Congress to establish Yellowstone National Park.