Similarities in reactivity complicate separating rare earths from ores

What are rare earth elements?

Rare earth metals are 17 elements in the periodic table critical for modern technologies like electronics and defense systems. Although the US once led in their production, it now faces significant challenges in competing with China’s lower costs and control of over 70% of the global output.

A smartphone contains over a dozen rare earth elements

One of the most important elements is indium, which makes up an electrically-conductive mesh beneath the display that provides touchscreen functionality. Alloys containing REEs are used in the magnets needed for the microphone and speaker.

Mining of rare earth elements risks leaking radioactive wastewater

The extraction and processing of REEs requires significant amounts of water, and poorly regulated projects can contaminate groundwater with acids and heavy metals. Toxic waste spills have paused work in several US mines since the 1980s, despite growing REE demand.

As of 2022, China has the largest reserve of rare earth elements

At 37.9% of estimated global reserves, China possesses twice the amount of REEs as Vietnam, the next closest nation. REEs, or lanthanides, are a set of 17 elements on the periodic table, which, alongside scandium and yttrium, share similar chemical properties that make them difficult to separate from within ores.

Explore an interactive database of critical minerals and their uses

Columbia University's Critical Materials Monitor identifies 56 elements required for the clean energy transition. The tool provides details on the reserves, production, and trade of each element, alongside what materials are needed for each technology (desktop only).

An overview of the metals obtainable through deep-sea mining of nodules and crusts

Polymetallic nodules are a source of manganese, cobalt, nickel, copper, molybdenum, and platinum, which are used in batteries, fuel cells, and metal alloys of electric vehicles. Seamount crusts contain rare-earth elements deemed essential to US national and economic security, including neodymium and dysprosium used to make permanent magnets.

The periodic table organizes elements by atomic structure and common properties

Developed by Dmitri Mendeleev in 1869, the arrangement places elements into columns, called groups, if they share the same number of electrons in their outer shell, indicating similar chemical behavior. From left to right across rows, or periods, elements have more protons, as well as corresponding electrons when neutral.

Uranium's ability to split easily makes it the most common catalyst for nuclear power

Uranium is commonly found in rocks, water, and soil worldwide, but significant industrial processes are needed to process and enrich it for efficient reactor usage. After being irradiated in reactors, it must be cooled down before disposal.

How scientists determine elemental composition based on the light emitted by cooling atoms

When electrons within an atom drop to a lower energy level closer to the nucleus, they lose energy and produce light with energy equal to the difference between the two energy levels. Because these levels and the corresponding emitted light are unique to each element, the light serves as a unique signature that can be compared to known lab samples for identification.

Gold's electrical conductivity, reflectivity, and catalytic capabilities make it scientifically valuable

Although gold has been prized since its use in 40,000 BCE for decorative purposes, it has more recently served as a replacement for mercury in the production of PVC plastic. Because gold does not react with air or corrode, it has remained in circulation and reused in electronics and biomaterials.

A list of five everyday products that rely on radioactivity, including exit signs and gemstones

Like some glow-in-the-dark wristwatches, some exit signs contain sealed tubes of tritium—radioactive hydrogen gas—which emit low-energy beta particles that react with surrounding elements to produce light, making them visible without batteries. In smoke detectors, smoke particles disrupt the steady flow of ions generated by americium-241.

Radioactive elements can introduce software errors because the ionizing radiation they produce can detach electrons from atoms, and computer code relies on the distribution of electrons.

How gold, platinum, and many rare earth elements form during neutron star mergers

While massive stars naturally fuse elements as heavy as iron, an analysis of gravitational waves from the collision of two neutron stars revealed that more massive elements are created in this environment via rapid neutron capture—the r-process. This phenomenon sees existing iron nuclei absorb plentiful free neutrons, many of which decay into protons, creating new elements.

The adaptations of metallophiles and how they can be harnessed for bioremediation

These extremophiles have adapted to biomes with very high concentrations of metals and toxic chemicals by developing mechanisms to isolate these substances within cellular compartments and break them down into less harmful forms with specialized proteins. They have the potential to support the decontamination of metal-rich wastewater and soil, as well as the extraction of rare-earth metals.

Batteries store energy in chemical bonds that can be turned into electricity

To achieve a more stable, nonreactive state, many elements in nature are reactive and will seek to lose electrons via oxidation or gain electrons through reduction reactions. By pairing an oxidizing chemical with a reducing chemical in a battery, electrons will naturally flow between them, producing an electric current.

Minerals, crystals, rocks, and gems explained

Have you ever wondered what differentiates a mineral from a rock or a crystal from a gem? This three-minute video from the American Museum of Natural History elaborates on the unique properties and compositions that separate minerals, rocks,...

What is the rarest color in nature?

Plants, animals, or minerals found in nature bear almost every color imaginable. There are two factors that influence what hues you see in the wild: physics and evolution. So, which colors are you least likely to see in the natural world? Victoria Hwang explores one of nature’s rarest spectacles.

Chromium contaminants in a ruby crystal gave the world's first laser its red color

The red light originates from a long-lasting excited electron state in the element's atomic structure. The brittle gray metal has historically been used in pigment production, the manufacturing of rust-resistant stainless steel, and the creation of durable coatings with long-lasting shine for metals, wood, and leather.

Pierre Curie's knowledge of electromagnetism helped decipher radioactivity

Alongside his brother, he studied electric fields in crystals and the magnetic properties of substances, which required the construction of delicate electrometers. He would use this apparatus with Marie Curie to measure radioactive emissions and the presence of undiscovered radioactive elements.

The mysterious qualities of obsidian and magnetite

Obsidian is a dark volcanic glass created when lava cools quickly and frequently contains magnetite, a key early mineral used in compasses. Large deposits were discovered and used in central Mexico by the Toltecs roughly 1,000 years ago at the ancient site of Teotihuacan. This essay explores obsidian's cultural impact and the mysterious presence of magnetite in migratory birds.

Measurements of an electron’s magnetic moment help test the Standard Model

A particle’s magnetic moment quantifies how it responds to the presence of an external magnetic field. An electron’s value can be measured down to 14 decimal places, with certainties in the first 12 allowing it to be used to assess the accuracy of predictive models.

Electromagnetic repulsion prevents objects from making contact with one another

The feeling of touching something is a sensation caused by the electromagnetic force between the electrons on the surface of objects. Since this force grows to infinity with proximity, no two surfaces can ever achieve matter-to-matter contact.

The research that led to sour

Scientists are trying to figure out if there are unique receptors that respond to the molecules that make up flavors we associate with calcium, blood, batteries, and other items that often escape dinner menus. Taste researcher Dr. Danielle Reed says the minimum evidence for a taste category typically involves identifying dedicated receptors and then removing them to show the taste vanishes.

While atoms are normally made of protons, neutrons, and electrons, exotic ones have been built with antimatter—alternate versions of normal matter that live for fractions of a second and are about a billion times as rare.

Symmetric patterns of magnetic stripes seen on either side of mid-ocean ridges

The symmetry provides evidence of seafloor spreading, where new oceanic crust is created at mid-ocean ridges, which pushes older ocean crust away on either side. Matching the pattern to magnetized material in rocks on Earth’s surface provided a timeline of ocean floor recycling.

Create anything from the elements in Little Alchemy 2

Various ancient cultures believed the most abundant substances in the world were its basic elements: earth, water, air, and fire. We may know better now, but you can make almost anything from those four things. Little Alchemy 2 is a fun, cartoonish game that allows users to create more complex items from simple substances.

The industrial methods for recovering helium, including filters and cryogenic separation

Membranes with microscopic pores of varying sizes can be used to selectively filter out components of natural gas, including helium, which can then be concentrated. Because helium requires the lowest temperature of all elements to condense into a liquid, extracted natural gas can also be cooled until only helium remains as a gas.

See how fireworks are made and learn how metals like magnesium and copper are responsible for different colors.

Watch how deep-sea mining equipment collects and processes polymetallic nodules—metal-rich, potato-shaped rocks—from the ocean floor and creates environmentally damaging plumes of sediments.

Some renewable energy sources may weaken the resiliency of electric grids by removing outage buffers provided by coal- and natural gas-fired plants, which provide the system with more time to find a new power source if a plant goes down.

As of 2025, the most cited papers in science include a review of graphene, methods to improve image recognition, streamlining electron density calculations, and optimizing protein studies.

Sony set the standard for cylinder-shaped batteries when it repurposed manufacturing equipment used to make rolls of magnetic recording tape.

The history of many kitchen appliances involves unexpected discoveries and applications, including wartime radar turned hamster defroster and replacing an 'ice king' with heat-stealing boxes.

Pure water does not conduct electricity because this flow of energy requires the movement of charged particles, and water is a neutral molecule.

Louisiana's 'Cancer Alley' is infamous for having some of the highest industrial pollution, toxic air emissions, and cancer risks in the US.

The Great Salt Lake's distinct dual coloration results from high-salinity organisms that only live in the northern portion and produce a purple protein.

Ebola is a filovirus, meaning it resembles a thread under a microscope, though it sometimes twists and can resemble a bowl of spaghetti.

Corals are themselves not coral reefs—the term refers to the tiny marine invertebrates that build the rigid reef.

While the sun's gravity keeps the planets in orbit, their gravity also pulls on the sun, causing it and everything else in the solar system to orbit around a mutual balance point called the barycenter—the true center of the solar system.

The Nasdaq's 'Magnificent 7' companies are responsible for roughly 40% of the Nasdaq 100 index's gains, while the remaining 93 companies account for the other 60%.

Poison ivy's characteristic rash is caused by an allergic response to an oily compound in the plant called urushiol.

Visualize the path of every solar eclipse from 1900 to 2099 and see what each looks like when observed from different locations on Earth.

While El Niño moves warm Pacific Ocean waters east along the equator, La Niña moves them west, shifting where rainfall will become more common for months.

Doctors differentiate between a phobia and fear by asking patients whether their fear interferes with their day-to-day activities.

Crows are believed to have intelligence on par with a seven-year-old child and demonstrate complex behaviors, from problem-solving with tools to recognizing human faces.

In 2025, four executives from large tech companies were given positions in the US Army Reserves—including Palantir Chief Technology Officer Shyam Sankar, which reinforced Palantir's ties with the US military and its role as a leading defense partner.

The rivalry between Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson centered on federalism—the question of how much power the federal government should hold relative to the states.

The US dollar is the most widely circulated currency in the world, and is involved in nearly 90% of global transactions

Use this calculator to find the dollar value of your mental load, from meal planning to coordinating after-school care for your children.

Frank Lloyd Wright's houses are historically hard to sell because they're old, subject to local landmark commissions, and often unfashionable