The art of classical rhetoric

What is rhetoric?

The roots of "rhetoric" stretch back to ancient Greece, where early philosophers defined rhetoric as the art of winning the soul through discourse or the art of persuasion. Rhetoric and its proposed nature have since shifted, with more modern sources describing rhetoric as a natural byproduct of language, the intentional framing of discourse, or the study of how humans use symbols and language to carry out human activity.

Ancient Greeks recognized public speaking as a teachable art form

Clear and eloquent speech is valuable for people in all walks of life. Some tips for becoming an effective speaker include considering your audience and how to benefit them, defining the goals of your speech, and practicing.

Using rhetoric to analyze a speech

A rhetorical situation is a framework for analyzing speeches and their reception as a form of persuasion that seeks to influence audience action. According to this framework, understanding a speech's impact requires a deep understanding of its setting. This virtual "untextbook" by Atilla Hallsby, an assistant communications professor at the University of Minnesota Twin Cities, provides examples of rhetorical situations and analysis using current and historical events.

Aristotle's 'Poetics': a breakdown for the overwhelmed student

"Poetics" by ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle is an analysis and commentary on theater. This 13-minute video by a theater student summarizes and explains the ancient publication, of which only a portion has survived since antiquity. Aristotle studied under Plato, another ancient Greek philosopher, for about 20 years. Aristotle's "Poetics" can be seen as a response to Plato's "Republic," which argued poets and poetry were corruptive forces.

Read how Roman writers described gladiators

This article, drawn from an older classical dictionary, synthesizes the views of ancient Roman authors on gladiators. While archaeological knowledge has advanced, the core textual evidence remains the same, with links to translations of the sources.

The renaissance in the ancient art of calligraphy

The ancient craft of calligraphy is experiencing a renaissance, with hundreds of societies devoted to the practice of fancy penmanship. The movement consists generally of two camps: people who use "pointed pen" (or fine line work) and those who deploy the "broad nib" (large, broad letters). Disruptive members are attempting to bridge the divide.

The ancient Greeks laid the foundation of Western culture, from ideas to sports

The Latin alphabet is the most used in the world and stems from the Greek language. The greatest sporting event in the world, the Olympics, originated among the Greeks. The way many countries decide on policy is via forms of democracy, an innovation of the ancient Greeks.

What do you mean ancient Rome had 'Five Good Emperors?'

Between the first and second centuries CE, Rome was ruled by five emperors who reversed the civilization's sprint toward civil war. By the end of the fifth emperor's reign, the Roman Empire had achieved a level of stability and power it would never hold again. This article details the reign of the Five Good Emperors—Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius—who were chosen based on their abilities instead of their bloodlines.

There are three main types of satire: Horatian, Juvenalian, and Menippean

These classifications are based on the Roman poets who popularized them. Horatian is good-natured and lighthearted, Juvenalian is bitter and more caustic, and Menippean contains many layers.

Romanticism challenged neoclassicalism

Neoclassical artists believed in the promise of the Enlightenment—that logic was a cure-all for society’s problems—and sought to apply a similar rationality to their artwork. That meant straightforward, realistic work that portrayed historical scenes as close to real life as possible without any visible evidence of the artist’s handiwork.

Raphael's 'School of Athens' visually contrasts the views of Plato and Aristotle

As part of a commission from Pope Julius II to decorate his private library (and while Michelangelo was painting the Sistine Chapel), Raphael created four frescoes representing different branches of knowledge: theology, philosophy, law, and poetry. "The School of Athens" depicted philosophy, staging classic thinkers Plato and Aristotle alongside others from intellectual history.

The standing ovation comes from an ancient Roman military tradition

Ovation is derived from the Latin for “I rejoice” and was a ceremonial salute to military generals who'd been victorious in battle.

The prophetic Oracle of Delphi held real power in ancient Greece

It was said to have a direct line to Apollo, the Greek god of various domains, including music and prophecy. The oracle was believed to be the most important job in the city and could only be held by women. After years of training, oracles-to-be would be assessed to see if they could become the Pythia—the single oracle who would communicate Apollo's will.

A list of the best toasts

Toasting is an art form, with the best toasts getting passed down through generations. This list was culled from hundreds of submissions and is organized by theme, tone, and objective. If you're looking to find a good line to use as the conclusion for your next speech, this might be your best bet.

Exploring the Hippodrome of Constantinople

The Hippodrome had room for about 80,000 spectators (more than the Colosseum, but less than Rome’s Circus Maximus). It was simultaneously Constantinople’s premier entertainment venue and its greatest political theater: the emperor routinely watched the games, and sometimes communicated with the crowd through a herald. The worst riot in Byzantine history, the Nika Revolt, began when the factions of the Hippodrome united in opposition to Justinian.

Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes championed the idea of speech as a 'marketplace of ideas'

In his landmark dissent in Abrams v. United States, Justice Holmes argued that the best way to combat harmful ideas is through open competition—a principle that became foundational to modern First Amendment law.

Orwell warned readers about how abuse of language can lead to dystopias

In his 1946 essay "Politics and the English Language," Orwell argues that language is the primary tool of political control and is "designed to make lies sound truthful and murder respectable, and to give an appearance of solidity to pure wind." The essay warns readers that how they use and consume language will dictate what they permit—or prohibit—in society.

Critics of Alexander the Great see him as power-hungry and ruthless

Arguments against his greatness include that he likely murdered his father for the throne, poorly led his territories, and only conquered one empire despite touting greater feats. Proponents argue that he was a skilled military leader and helped usher in the Hellenistic Age, where Greek cultural influence spread across Europe and Asia.

When did humans start kissing romantically?

This article explores the ancient roots of romantic kissing. Current archaeological evidence dates sexual and romantic lip kissing to about 2,500 BCE. A Mesopotamian clay tablet from the time shares a tale of two deities locking lips. There's also...

On the role of 'Citizenship In A Republic'

After finishing a Smithsonian-sponsored expedition to East Africa, US President Theodore Roosevelt stopped by Paris and gave a speech about the responsibilities an ordinary citizen has to their republic. Citizens must know there is no effort without error, knowing they "fail while daring greatly" in pursuit of a truly democratic republic. This podcast series on powerful speeches across history is written and narrated by historian and author Jon Meacham.

How presidential candidates prepare for TV debates

One of the most significant performances of a politician's life is the televised debate, which requires the kind of preparation only an actor would be familiar with. This article dives into some of the recent history around debate prep norms, including how every campaign chooses someone to act like the opponent in mock debates—often to comical effect.

Wrestling's superstars are capable of electric 'promos'

One convention of pro wrestling is the “promo”—a televised interview that allows wrestlers to develop their personas and articulate their characters’ motivations. The “Macho Man” Randy Savage is arguably the best to ever cut a promo, with his gravelly voice, memorable catchphrases and hilarious non-sequiturs making for great television.

At its core, stand-up is about a comic making a crowd laugh

The performance style typically features a single performer who aims to make an audience laugh. It evolved from 19th and 20th-century American comedy traditions and has since grown into an influential—and commercially successful—international artistic form.

The complicated use of rap lyrics as legal evidence

Rap artists are known for their vivid imagery, which can sometimes include gruesome acts of violence. That style has led to legal trouble for some artists (including popular acts like Young Thug) when songs are admitted as evidence in court cases. This legal analysis breaks down a history of the trend and explains why people are trying to stop it.

How to win a negotiation

Chris Voss, former FBI hostage chief, explains how logic and argument rarely convince someone; instead, he claims emotional intelligence is the most important factor. Watch this brief video where the expert lays out the three most important skills...

Graffiti dates back to at least ancient Pompeii, where citizens scrawled messages to one another on public walls

During the French Revolution, a botanist's letter asking about "dear Rhus" (poison ivy) was intercepted, leading authorities to suspect he was conspiring with the Russians.

SpongeBob exemplifies Aristotle's philosophy for living well because he understands that happiness doesn't come from external factors like money, recognition, or power.

Gerrymandering works through two techniques: cracking opposing voters across districts to dilute their power, and packing them into a few to waste their votes in lopsided majorities.

American short story writer Flannery O'Connor raised 40 peacocks, which became potent symbols for her fiction's elegant violence

The term 'algorithm' originated from the Latinized name of al-Khwārizmī, a 9th-century mathematician whose works introduced Arabic numerals and the decimal-based numeral system to Europe and whose treatise 'Al-Jabr' gave algebra its name.

Hear 50 years of iconic hip-hop samples, the genre's foundational looped tracks

Exploring the Larry Bird punch that almost changed March Madness

The 19th-century painters of the Hudson River School were among the first American romantics, with portraits that displayed the natural beauty of the young country.

Clever Hans was a 1900s horse that was believed to be able to solve math equations, tell time, and read and comprehend German, until a psychology student discovered how he got his answers.

Many legends about George Washington, including his supposed wooden teeth and the story of cutting down the cherry tree, lack evidence.

See how fireworks are made and learn how metals like magnesium and copper are responsible for different colors.

After 25 people used virtual reality headsets to practice flying with virtual wings—flapping their arms—their visual cortex responded to the wings almost as if they were real arms, treating them as body parts.

Before humans, the Soviet Union and the United States sent animals—including apes, dogs, and cats—to space during the Space Race.

While the sun's gravity keeps the planets in orbit, their gravity also pulls on the sun, causing it and everything else in the solar system to orbit around a mutual balance point called the barycenter—the true center of the solar system.

Frank Lloyd Wright's houses are historically hard to sell because they're old, subject to local landmark commissions, and often unfashionable

Iran's Revolutionary Guard Corps is independent of Iran's regular army and is one of the most powerful and influential military-political organizations in the Middle East.

The Brothers Grimm were lawyers before they were storytellers, and became interested in fairy tales as they began investigating how rules and customs had been passed down through cultures.

The deadliest aspect of volcanic eruptions is often not lava, but pyroclastic flows—avalanches of ash, gas, and rock that can move more than half the speed of sound.

Learn how to read a prospectus, the juicy document that any company must file with the SEC before going public.

After her fellow cult members tried to kill her with an LSD-infused hamburger, one member of the Manson Family, the murderous cult led by Charles Manson, decided to testify against the group's leader.

Some coin denominations have ridges etched on their sides, partly to prevent counterfeiting, in a practice called 'reeding.'

Sony set the standard for cylinder-shaped batteries when it repurposed manufacturing equipment used to make rolls of magnetic recording tape.

Cultural norms about how to handle the bodies of loved ones in communities in West Africa have hampered Ebola responses.