Science is rarely a linear progression of understanding

Scientific progress works toward absolute truth, but can never reach it

Through the acquisition of scientific knowledge, scientists construct explanations of the world, which are rigorously tested and verified until they narrow down to a leading theory of the natural world. However, because of how science works, these ideas will never become factual, as they must always remain open to be iteratively revision based on new data.

Each scientific study adds incremental knowledge to existing understanding

On its own, no study serves as a source of truth or solves an existing problem indefinitely, though many can be analyzed collectively in a systematic review to build more confidence—the result of more data—in a conclusion. Studies can explore knowledge gaps or test an existing theory, which is always subject to refinement and improvement.

Discoveries in electromagnetism became the catalyst for overturning Isaac Newton

To maintain the consistency of experimental results involving electricity, magnetism, and light, time and space had to cease being absolute and could change in value to keep the speed of light constant. This cosmic speed limit forced Einstein to revise the existing model of gravity.

Learn why modern scientific patterns have been described as theories rather than laws

After confirming that the accuracy of some laws of physics is limited to certain domains, science became more hesitant to categorize identified mathematical relationships, such as quantum mechanics, as unchanging laws. Instead, these recent, complex frameworks are designated as theories to acknowledge that they are conditional and may be part of a larger, more complete future framework.

How upheavals in accepted scientific theories helped popularize the term 'paradigm'

When Thomas Kuhn published "The Structure of Scientific Revolutions" in 1962, he described the history of science as comprising periods of "normal science" where these accepted frameworks—paradigms—gradually accumulate anomalies until they cannot describe nature. Revolutionary science, such as the development of a new theory, results in a paradigm shift, another term Kuhn helped popularize. (Some readers may experience a paywall.)

How facts, hypotheses, theories, and laws in science differ from everyday language

Facts are observations of the world, and they can be pooled together for a given phenomenon to develop a hypothesis—a proposed explanation consistent with observations that requires further investigation. Experiments and additional data can rule out many hypotheses or graduate a proposed explanation into a widely accepted and validated theory.

The mystery of the expanding universe

One of the most surprising discoveries about our universe over the past century is that it's expanding. Even more surprising is that it’s speeding up, and scientists aren’t entirely sure why. The rate should be roughly dependent on the total energy contained in the universe, but calculations keep coming up short. Explore the so-called “Hubble Tension,” along with potential candidates to solve the riddle.

New ways of seeing the cosmos have redrawn the map of human identity

From Galileo’s crude spyglass to the James Webb Space Telescope, each technological leap has expanded our observational reach and redefined philosophical and moral conceptions of our place in the universe. Identifying signs of life through the study of exoplanet atmospheres would represent the next great revolution.

Scientists are experimenting with ways to probe the multiverse theory

Researchers are simulating vacuum bubbles—the theorized starting points of universes—using quantum computers, digital models, and exotic lab setups to study how they form, expand, and possibly collide. One experiment aims to "blow" artificial universe-like bubbles inside ultra-cold quantum gases, potentially capturing real-time glimpses of cosmic birth processes in a lab.

Humans experience the world subjectively. What does that mean for scientific research?

When you close your eyes, do you see static or colorful patterns or an "intrinsic grey" known as Eigengrau in German? This variation of our internal experiences is just the tip of the iceberg, one that scientists are increasingly studying and...

English chemist Rosalind Franklin (1920 - 1958) on the importance of science

"Science and everyday life cannot and should not be separated. Science, for me, gives a partial explanation of life."

How do scientists study far away stars?

Astronomy is the only science that is purely observational: meaning, scientists can't study stars in a lab. Here's a breakdown of how modern researchers use new tools to understand objects billions of light years away. As it turns out, the rules of science allow us to identify, categorize, and experiment with phenomena light years away.

Explore a series of interdisciplinary explainers on climate science

From animations on the quantum mechanics of greenhouse gases to a photo essay on how scientists acquire climate data, this collection provides detailed explorations of how different branches of science have contributed to our understanding of climatology.

'The urge to explore has propelled evolution since the first water creatures reconnoitered the land. Like all living systems, cultures cannot remain static; they evolve or decline. They explore or expire.'

- Astronaut Buzz Aldrin (1930-present)

A quote by scientist Nikola Tesla

"The scientific man does not aim at an immediate result ... His duty is to lay the foundation for those who are to come, and point the way."

View an historical mural depicting the NSF's impact across seven decades

From 1950 to 2020, the National Science Foundation supported discovery-based, exploratory research that led to numerous breakthroughs, including the development of supercomputing centers, 3D printing technologies, biometric identification systems, an understanding of vector-borne illnesses, a DNA amplification technique, mobile meteorology units, and scientific education and literacy programming.

The wave nature of matter can produce phenomena like negative time and retrocausality

Within quantum mechanics, matter simultaneously exists as both fixed particles and extended waves, allowing it to emerge across barriers—just as sound travels through walls—before it fully enters the obstacle. The resulting measurements can show that particles spent negative time within a barrier, with the future occurring before the past.

Learn how natural systems exhibit characteristics of chaos theory

In biology, some mathematical models of ecosystem populations and heart irregularities show strong sensitivity to initial conditions, which scientists can simulate to determine quantitative tipping points at which these systems become unstable. Within the social sciences, crowd behavior and the virality of social media posts have shown how human behavior fits within the framework of chaos theory.

According to Bill Nye, science is under threat from an erosion in critical thinking

He states that conducting research online cannot replace consulting with scientific experts who have spent their entire lives intimately studying a field. The former science education show host argues that deepening cynicism towards scientific institutions has been fueled by leaders embracing debunked and unsupported claims.

How to build curiosity

Change and uncertainty induce stress, but reframing the unknown into an opportunity for discovery has tangible benefits. Approaching change with curiosity enhances activity in the hippocampus and promotes neuroplasticity, promoting learning and serving as a barrier against anxiety. A neuroscientist explains how embracing the unknown, trying small experiments, and other techniques build curiosity.

The history of chemistry, from alchemists to probing atoms before World War I

Those involved in the predecessor of the modern scientific discipline engaged in experimentation to develop recipes that would transform ordinary matter into gold and to create medicines, cosmetics, dyes, and alloys. Over the course of centuries, scientists identified unique elements, organized them based on their properties in the periodic table, and eventually developed the technology to discover the internal structure of atoms.

'Imagination is more important than knowledge. For knowledge is limited, whereas imagination embraces the entire world.'

- Albert Einstein

Only allowing three recipients causes the Nobel Prize to overlook team discoveries

While science has grown more inclusive and collaborative, the Nobel Prize system still struggles with outdated practices, such as secrecy and a rigid limit on awardees. This restriction sidelines many deserving scientists, especially in complex projects like the human genome or gravitational waves.

How epigenetics blurs the line between nature and nurture

An exploration of the study of how behaviors and environment affect the way genes work — and how that complicates the nature-versus-nurture debate.

Multiple new research paths may lead to slowing (or even reversing) aging

Aging has always been inevitable, but fasting, epigenetic reprogramming, and parabiosis seem to help people stay young. By studying centenarians, memory, and even the humble roundworm, scientists are looking for the genetic basis to live not just a long life, but a healthy one.

Chaos theory—informally known as the butterfly effect—is the reason why weather forecasts are presented with probabilities rather than certainties.

Explore our favorite visualization of the immense scale of space, from an astronaut to the size of the observable universe

As of 2025, the most cited papers in science include a review of graphene, methods to improve image recognition, streamlining electron density calculations, and optimizing protein studies.

Learn how your body is, scientifically, like a firework with its own slow, controlled burn.

Stars appear to twinkle because turbulence in the motion of molecules in Earth's atmosphere causes light to bend and wiggle rapidly on its way to the surface—a phenomenon called scintillation.

The history of many kitchen appliances involves unexpected discoveries and applications, including wartime radar turned hamster defroster and replacing an 'ice king' with heat-stealing boxes.

Watch how algorithms can be designed to train themselves and self-improve without human input, to the point where the optimized code is too complex for programmers to understand.

Scientists can determine Earth's past climate conditions by analyzing air trapped in microscopic bubbles within ice cores—columns of compressed snow layers that build up over hundreds of thousands of years.

Recent research found that the brain doesn't seem to massively rewire following amputation—upending earlier beliefs about the cause of phantom limb pain.

Visualize how CRISPR-Cas9—a type of immune system used by single-celled organisms to attack invasive viruses—targets and makes precise changes to a gene's DNA.

Clever Hans was a 1900s horse that was believed to be able to solve math equations, tell time, and read and comprehend German, until a psychology student discovered how he got his answers.

Indefinite cloning of some endangered species may not sustain their longevity because cloning success rates decrease as genetic mutations accumulate.

Radioactive elements can introduce software errors because the ionizing radiation they produce can detach electrons from atoms, and computer code relies on the distribution of electrons.

How Amazon operates a 'flywheel' business model, a self-reinforcing cycle that drives continuous growth

The Mona Lisa's celebrity status and repeated restorations have obscured what made the painting so revolutionary for its time

Explore fun facts from the USPS, including unique post office buildings, a stamp that traveled past Pluto, and more.

An investigation suggests a Scottish island became awash in forever chemicals via seafoam and seaspray—raising questions about what that means for the safety of other coastal areas.

See the evolution of Ebola vaccine and treatment development.

Walt Disney's early film 'Alice's Wonderland' was a groundbreaking innovation in the silent film era

The word 'jazz' evolved from 'jasm,' 19th-century American slang for 'energy'

Objects can be 3D printed with light by projecting 2D computerized tomography (CT) scans onto rotating cylinders of resin, which solidify upon exposure.

Pure water does not conduct electricity because this flow of energy requires the movement of charged particles, and water is a neutral molecule.

Budweiser stores yeast derived from the original 1800s strain in a secret bunker, which only the Head of Yeast Management can access—not even the CEO

Venture capital is a form of funding provided to early-stage companies with high growth potential, typically in exchange for an equity (or ownership) stake