Watch how proteins are created from DNA

Cells translate genetic information into proteins using RNA messengers

Genes are segments of DNA, each composed of a sequence of nitrogenous bases. Within the nucleus, these sequences are copied into a single strand of ribonucleic acid during transcription. This strand leaves the nucleus and is translated by ribosomes into a chain of amino acids that folds into a functional protein.

DNA's four-letter blueprint makes the variety of all living things possible

The proteins responsible for cellular functions and an organism's traits are built outside of a cell's nucleus from RNA—single-stranded molecules created by reading the information in DNA. DNA's double-stranded structure makes it more stable and allows RNA to be made from either of its complementary strands.

RNA may have allowed life to exist before DNA

The emergence of living organisms from non-living matter—abiogenesis—requires both a molecule that encodes genetic information and proteins that perform biochemical processes. However, because DNA and protein depend on one another, some biologists theorize that RNA, which can both store information and perform functions, preceded both and originated life.

Peptides may have predated ribosomes—the cell's protein factory

Some scientists have hypothesized that peptides and RNA molecules may have coevolved as a single, mixed "chimeric" molecule, fueling the beginning of protein production and predating a primitive version of the ribosome. All life today uses ribosomes to make peptides. (Some users may experience a paywall.)

Watch how DNA is packaged to a 10,000th of its original size in a cell

In humans, the 2-meter (6.56-foot) molecule wraps around spool-like proteins called histones, forming beads—nucleosomes—that fold up into fibers. These fibers—chromatin—form loops through folding that compress into larger fibers, which tightly coil together to form a chromosome.

Recombinant DNA technology turns microorganisms into protein factories

Genes for molecules such as insulin can be inserted into loops of bacterial DNA called plasmids and reinserted into bacteria. Once placed in fermentation tanks, these bacteria use the gene to produce these molecules, which are then harvested and purified for eventual use.

A fascinating look at how our DNA is built and replicated

This easy-to-understand 13-minute video dives into the wondrous molecule deoxyribonucleic acid – also known as DNA – and explains how it replicates itself in our cells.

Stacking nucleotide molecules like toy blocks helps build DNA's structure

Each nucleotide is made up of a sugar—deoxyribose—a phosphate group, and one of four bases that contain nitrogen. Like building a two-tone, spiral staircase from the ground up, nucleotides are linked one on top of another so that sugars and phosphates alternate. The twisted strands are held together by hydrogen bonds between base pairs.

Only 2% of human DNA codes for proteins

The entire human genome contains about 20,000 protein-coding genes, with the rest having initially been categorized as "junk" DNA. However, research since 2003 suggests that this "dark genome" regulates how protein-coding genes are expressed in response to environmental factors encountered by cells.

How do you sequence a genome?

If the genome is made up of microscopic chromosomes, how do scientists actually sequence it? Here's a 5-minute video explaining one of the most common processes.

Visualization of printing synthetic DNA

Ever wonder how synthetic DNA is made? Discover how GenScript uses innovative technology to synthesize precise, high-quality DNA at a larger scale than ever before.

Changing a single letter in DNA can permanently alter an organism

Genetic mutations occur when cells replicate, which requires a copy of DNA to be created, and involve substituting, deleting, or inserting letters in a cell's genetic code. Mutations can be caused by normal cellular processes, chemical exposure (e.g., carcinogens), or radiation and may result in genetic disorders or genetic variations that drive evolution.

Cells create more organelles and duplicate their genetic material before dividing

As part of the cell cycle, this ensures that after mitosis—the process of cell division—the two resulting daughter cells possess the tools necessary to complete the functions of their parent cell, including accumulating energy and making proteins. During meiosis, four egg or sperm cells are created, each with half the parent cell's DNA.

Where do genes come from?

There are many more genes on Earth today than when microbial life first spawned on the planet about four billion years ago. Many of these newer genes grew from genetic mutations, misprints that slowly drift from the original blueprint via cellular division. If these mutations drift far enough, they can establish a new family of genes, though this process can take well over a million years.

Watch how Sanger sequencing kickstarted the first generation of DNA sequencing

Sanger sequencing is a foundational DNA sequencing technology developed in 1977. The Nobel Prize-winning discovery uses fluorescent dyes at the end of DNA chains, which are sorted by length through electrophoresis, to determine the order of nucleotide bases.

Visualize how CRISPR-Cas9—a type of immune system used by single-celled organisms to attack invasive viruses—targets and makes precise changes to a gene's DNA.

How mRNA vaccines work

mRNA COVID-19 vaccines were developed faster than any vaccine ever made. Even more enticing, the underlying technology may unlock preventive treatments for a wide-range of diseases.

Different enzymes can be used in the CRISPR system to modify how DNA is cut

The system uses RNA sequences to guide enzymes like Cas9 to specific spots in DNA, where they cut or modify genes. Unlike Cas9, the Cpf1 enzyme makes staggered cuts, which helps insert new DNA more cleanly.

Epigenetic clock: DNA alterations on cells that predict biological age

Epigenetics refers to a biological process that controls whether certain genes are expressed or not. With a rising interest in the concept of biological age, researchers have discovered a cellular change known as DNA methylation that leaves a fingerprint on our genome as we age.

How metabolism, when cells convert molecules into energy, works

Metabolism is when a cell’s internal network of chemical reactions breaks down food molecules and transforms them into pieces of the cell itself. Sometimes, cells build replacements for worn-out parts. Other times, they build energy molecules that power the cell’s activities.

What sleep loss does to the brain

Proteins in the brain perform various critical functions, such as helping neurotransmitters function or enabling electrical activity in the organ. These proteins must fold in specific ways to perform their duties, similar to paper airplanes. Sleep deprivation contributes to the gathering of misfolded proteins that aren't shaped correctly for their roles and so accumulate in undesired spaces, such as in the gaps between neurons.

A technical look at the measles virus and its life cycle

The measles virus is made up of a single strand of RNA, packaged inside an envelope that varies in shape and size. A negative-sense paramyxovirus—the same family as mumps—the virus is encased in proteins that help it attach to immune cells inside the body.

Complex molecular reactions in our tissues cause muscle contraction

When we want to move a muscle, a signal travels from the brain and into the muscle cells in question, sparking a chemical reaction that causes the muscle's smallest contractile units—sarcomeres—to shorten, forcing the muscle to contract.

'Artificial embryos': The hidden steps in forming a spine

Somitogenesis is the process by which segmented body structures like vertebrae form in embryos. While the process is well understood in animals like mice or zebrafish it is difficult to study in humans. But now, researchers have created a model of somitogenesis, using pluripotent stem cells, called an axioloid.

An overview of oxygenic photosynthesis, which releases oxygen from breaking down water

Within the membranes of chloroplasts, electrons in pigments are energized by light and transferred across a series of molecules until they create the energetic NADPH molecule. This transfer also powers a hydrogen pump, which creates an ion imbalance that, when relieved, produces energetic ATP molecules. Outside the membranes, both NADPH and ATP are used to synthesize G3Ps, which are funneled into other metabolic pathways to produce sugars.

How radioactive isotopes are created and used for medical diagnostics

In particle accelerators, protons can be accelerated into other atoms to create radioactive isotopes, which can be attached to specific molecules to create radiotracers that are taken up by specific cells. Radiotracers can emit particles that produce light once they collide with an electron, and this light can be captured by a PET scanner to diagnose specific ailments.

Bone marrow (soft tissue found inside certain bones) generates roughly 500 billion new blood cells each day

Learn how your body is, scientifically, like a firework with its own slow, controlled burn.

While atoms are normally made of protons, neutrons, and electrons, exotic ones have been built with antimatter—alternate versions of normal matter that live for fractions of a second and are about a billion times as rare.

Children are now three times more likely to say they want to be a YouTuber when they grow up than an astronaut, with some even attending 'YouTube camps' that teach kids how to create content for the platform.

As of 2025, the most cited papers in science include a review of graphene, methods to improve image recognition, streamlining electron density calculations, and optimizing protein studies.

Read a deep dive on the 'all-purpose healing' peptide BPC-157.

Researchers believe the brain consolidates memories, processes emotions, and plans for the future during dream states

The syncytiotrophoblast is the outer layer of the placenta and the largest human cell, spanning an area about twice that of a king-sized bedsheet.

Indefinite cloning of some endangered species may not sustain their longevity because cloning success rates decrease as genetic mutations accumulate.

An initial public offering or 'IPO' is the process of a private company becoming public by putting shares of the company on the stock market for purchase.

Trace how the Bill of Rights, inspired by centuries of political theory, took shape between 1774 and 1789.

To reduce wrinkles in clothing, research recommends gentle wash cycles with more water and tumble drying with smaller loads and longer times.

Ebola is a filovirus, meaning it resembles a thread under a microscope, though it sometimes twists and can resemble a bowl of spaghetti.

The Great Salt Lake's distinct dual coloration results from high-salinity organisms that only live in the northern portion and produce a purple protein.

How Amazon operates a 'flywheel' business model, a self-reinforcing cycle that drives continuous growth

Budweiser stores yeast derived from the original 1800s strain in a secret bunker, which only the Head of Yeast Management can access—not even the CEO

Long before Major League Baseball began allowing instant replay for balls and strikes, an umpire reluctantly used the technology to determine whether a hit was a home run, a move that inadvertently ushered in a new era for the sport.

Scientists can determine Earth's past climate conditions by analyzing air trapped in microscopic bubbles within ice cores—columns of compressed snow layers that build up over hundreds of thousands of years.

'Saturday Night Fever,' the 1977 film that introduced disco to the mainstream, was based on a fabricated magazine story.

A small portion of The Winstons' 'Amen, Brother,' an obscure '60s gospel record, is the basis for thousands of hip-hop tracks, making it one of the most sampled records ever that's informally known as 'the Amen break.'

English mathematician Ada Lovelace wrote the first computer algorithm a century before computers existed and hypothesized that computing devices would one day be able to compose music—foreseeing the generative AI systems of today.

Corals are themselves not coral reefs—the term refers to the tiny marine invertebrates that build the rigid reef.

The animatronic shark from Steven Spielberg's 'Jaws,' the first modern blockbuster, was a complex underwater apparatus called 'Bruce.'

Track the location of the Voyager probes, currently between 13 and 15 billion miles away from Earth.