Graphite is a powerful conductor and heat-resistant material

The applications and industrial uses of graphene, the single-atom-thick material

Shortly after its discovery in 2004, the strength, flexibility, optical properties, and conductivity of this thin layer of carbon atoms earned it the designation of a "wonder material," but breakthroughs in its use have taken decades of research. As of 2026, graphene-enhanced electronic sensors, optical microchips, concrete, and supercapacitors are available, though scale production challenges remain.

Synthetic diamonds may be used to cool microchips

The strong carbon bonds in diamonds efficiently carry vibrations, allowing them to conduct heat several times faster than copper, a metal commonly used in heat sinks. AI and high-performance computing have pushed researchers to investigate alternative materials for cooling solutions.

Clean energy technologies are more mineral-intensive than burning fossil fuels

Solar panels use silver due to its high conductivity, hydropower plants use chromium in their steel alloys, and geothermal plants need titanium to withstand abundant heat and pressure. Lithium—used in energy storage—is expected to see over 500% increased demand from 2020 to 2025.

Gold's electrical conductivity, reflectivity, and catalytic capabilities make it scientifically valuable

Although gold has been prized since its use in 40,000 BCE for decorative purposes, it has more recently served as a replacement for mercury in the production of PVC plastic. Because gold does not react with air or corrode, it has remained in circulation and reused in electronics and biomaterials.

Geothermal power can be used beyond heating and energy production

Depending on the depth of the natural vents or artificial wells drilled, the surrounding fluid temperature will vary greatly—from 10 to 371 degrees Celsius (50 to 700 degrees Fahrenheit)—allowing for various applications, including the drying of cement, concrete, and lumber, as well as the processing of pulp and paper.

How Faber-Castell makes pencils

One of the world's oldest industrial companies, Faber-Castell produces over 2 billion pencils a year, among many other staple products. In this quick video, watch the company's well-tried process for manufacturing the essential utensil, from mixing the graphite and clay to milling the wood of the pencils.

Beyond DNA, Franklin's legacy extends into modern virology and steel production

While remembered for her critical but under-credited role in uncovering parameters for the structure of DNA, Rosalind Franklin made significant contributions across coal chemistry and virus structure. Her research helped improve fuel efficiency, wartime protective equipment, and foundational knowledge in molecular biology.

Temperatures colder than Pluto can allow electricity to flow resistance-free

Since its discovery in 1911, applications of superconductivity have made MRI machines and maglev trains possible due to quantum effects at extreme temperatures. These effects are modeled as electrons cooperating in pairs and flowing more efficiently.

Glass can be endlessly recycled without losing quality

Sand from specialized mines is thoroughly cleaned and melted at more than 1,600 degrees Celsius before being poured onto liquid tin and evenly spread out to form glass sheets. Some factories are designed to reprocess 100% of glass scraps created when cutting glass with diamond-tipped blades or lasers.

The history of metallurgy: an interactive timeline

Humans have long been shaping metals into useful tools and aesthetic accessories. By 8,700 BCE, humans already had mastered four types of casting copper. Within a few thousand years, people were combining metals to make the alloy bronze and had...

Chromium contaminants in a ruby crystal gave the world's first laser its red color

The red light originates from a long-lasting excited electron state in the element's atomic structure. The brittle gray metal has historically been used in pigment production, the manufacturing of rust-resistant stainless steel, and the creation of durable coatings with long-lasting shine for metals, wood, and leather.

Methane: the other greenhouse gas

While most of the focus with respect to greenhouse gases lands on carbon dioxide, methane is the second most potent contributor. The gas, a carbon atom with four hydrogen atoms, is 25 times more potent than CO2 in terms of trapping heat over a 100...

As of 2025, the most cited papers in science include a review of graphene, methods to improve image recognition, streamlining electron density calculations, and optimizing protein studies.

Watch an animation of what happens inside cookies as they bake in an oven

As temperatures rise and butter melts, trapped water expands, spreading the dough, which remains held together by a network of proteins. Maillard reactions produce browning on the surface beyond 310 degrees Fahrenheit (154 degrees Celsius), while caramelization can be triggered by baking past 356 degrees Fahrenheit (180 degrees Celsius).

Learn more about Palantir's core products, Gotham and Foundry

Palantir's core products, Gotham and Foundry, are designed to help government agencies and businesses turn complex or messy datasets into usable information. Gotham is designed primarily for government clients and connects disparate data points into recommendations and analysis. Foundry is designed for enterprise users.

Thermal runaway reactions can cause batteries to catch fire or explode

If a lithium-ion battery is heated, punctured, crushed, or short-circuits due to manufacturing flaws or degradation, the cathode and anode can make contact without the resistance provided by a circuit. The ensuing spike in chemical reactions increases the temperature and can release oxygen, initiating and intensifying burning of the battery's interior.

Understanding how atomic structure contributes to each element's properties

The outermost layer of electrons in an atom dictates how it will bond to other atoms. These bonds determine whether elements exist as solids, liquids, or gases in the environment and other characteristics. For example, electrons are freely shared between atoms in metallic bonds, allowing them to immediately re-emit light that strikes them, thus making most metals shiny.

Many of Wright's buildings used radiant heating

Frank Lloyd Wright’s buildings weren’t just radical because of how they looked, but many of them also incorporated stunning technological innovations. Radiant heating is one of Wright’s most popular heating systems, offering the comfort of walking on warm floors on a cold day.

The world's longest-burning fire

This coal fire in New South Wales, Australia, a common occurrence at coal mines, has been burning for at least 5,500 years, and shows no signs of stopping.

Cerulean eruptions result from sulfur being heated by molten rock

During eruptions, warm-colored lava at temperatures between 700 and 1,200 degrees Celsius (1,300 and 2,200 degrees Fahrenheit) burns minerals as they escape from underground reservoirs. In some volcanoes, such as Indonesia's Kawah Ijen and Ethiopia's Danakil Depression, abundant sulfur compounds that burn with blue flames appear to change the color of the melted rock.

How scientists are using molecules found in acidophiles to develop new medical treatments

The Berkeley Pit, an open-pit copper mine in Butte, Montana, that ceased operations in 1982 and is now filled with highly acidic water, is home to various species of fungi and yeast. These extremophiles produce unique compounds that may have anti-inflammatory benefits and have already been used to create an antibiotic for staph infections.

See how fireworks are made and learn how metals like magnesium and copper are responsible for different colors.

An overview of crude oil, including its constituent hydrocarbons and refinement outputs

The mixture is primarily composed of molecules of carbon and hydrogen atoms bonded into a variety of shapes and lengths, giving each different chemical properties, such as boiling points. Refining can remove elemental impurities—such as sulfur—after hydrocarbons are separated, ensuring the resulting products can be used effectively in other machines, such as car engines.

Rising fracking rates have increased prices of some food products

Every fracking well uses approximately 20,000 pounds of guar gum, a thickening and stabilizing agent commonly used in ice cream, salad dressing, and baked goods. The polysaccharide is also a key component in some cosmetics and explosives.

Roman concrete lasts longer than modern recipes—and even gets stronger

Today's concrete is made by binding ingredients, including chalk and silica sand, at high temperatures. Unfortunately, it weakens when exposed to salt water. This article explores how and why scientists are studying ancient Roman concrete, which grows stronger when exposed to salt water.

What is asbestos, actually?

Asbestos can hurt you, but not many people understand how or why. Asbestos is actually a stone, once frequently employed as a construction material due to its strength, softness, fire-resistance, and biodegradability. However, when working on old homes or furniture, it may be released into the air, and extended exposure to its particles may cause lung cancer. Its use in new construction has been banned, but it remains a hazard. Learn more here.

Astatine-211 is a radioisotope that can be used for therapeutic cancer treatment

With less than 30 grams in the Earth's crust at any given time, astatine is the rarest naturally occurring element. Its decay produces alpha particles that can damage diseased cells with the same impact as 10,000 electrons.

The history of many kitchen appliances involves unexpected discoveries and applications, including wartime radar turned hamster defroster and replacing an 'ice king' with heat-stealing boxes.

Massive 3D printers have been used to build homes by stacking layers of 'concrete toothpaste,' a fire-resistant material that effectively insulates against outside noise.

The deadliest aspect of volcanic eruptions is often not lava, but pyroclastic flows—avalanches of ash, gas, and rock that can move more than half the speed of sound.

How fusion—which releases energy when two lighter atoms combine to form a heavier atom—differs from fission

Scientists can determine Earth's past climate conditions by analyzing air trapped in microscopic bubbles within ice cores—columns of compressed snow layers that build up over hundreds of thousands of years.

Radioactive elements can introduce software errors because the ionizing radiation they produce can detach electrons from atoms, and computer code relies on the distribution of electrons.

Some renewable energy sources may weaken the resiliency of electric grids by removing outage buffers provided by coal- and natural gas-fired plants, which provide the system with more time to find a new power source if a plant goes down.

Pure water does not conduct electricity because this flow of energy requires the movement of charged particles, and water is a neutral molecule.

In 1984, Operation Smash Hit intentionally crashed a 239-ton train into a nuclear waste canister at 100 miles per hour to prove the canister's safety, which remained completely intact and lost just 0.29 of its 100 pounds of pressure.

Sony set the standard for cylinder-shaped batteries when it repurposed manufacturing equipment used to make rolls of magnetic recording tape.

The first line of 'immortal' human cells, which can divide indefinitely and are used in scientific research, was nonconsensually taken from a Black woman.

Graffiti dates back to at least ancient Pompeii, where citizens scrawled messages to one another on public walls

The use of fungi to detoxify land and water—a process known as mycoremediation—has been used to clean up natural resources affected by the 2025 California wildfires.

Louisiana's 'Cancer Alley' is infamous for having some of the highest industrial pollution, toxic air emissions, and cancer risks in the US.

American dance legend Martha Graham, sometimes called 'the Picasso of dance,' refused to perform at the 1936 Olympics in Berlin and conceived the piece 'Chronicle' in response to the experience.

The price of gas is a composite made up of several different factors, with the federal gas tax making up less than 20% of what drivers pay at the pump.

See photos of Meteora, a mountainous site in central Greece, home to 14th-century monasteries perched atop soaring outcroppings.

Before writing 'Walden,' transcendentalist Henry David Thoreau nearly burned down his hometown with a campfire that grew out of control.

Iran's Revolutionary Guard Corps is independent of Iran's regular army and is one of the most powerful and influential military-political organizations in the Middle East.

Learn how to read a prospectus, the juicy document that any company must file with the SEC before going public.

Memecoins are a type of cryptocurrency—a form of digital currency with a wide variety of uses—created around popular 'memes,' or viral internet jokes.

This poison ivy knowledge quiz—accompanied by photos of the plant's varied forms—may help you identify this common rash-inducing growth.

The US Constitution is widely regarded as the longest-standing written national constitution still in force—see how it has influenced rights worldwide.