Claude Shannon, for whom Anthropic's AI tools are named, proved the existence of an unbreakable cipher

The work of Claude Shannon, for whom Anthropic's AI chatbot is named

Known as the father of information theory, Claude Shannon applied Boolean algebra—a subset of mathematics that quantifies true or false statements as 1 or 0, respectively—to circuit design to develop the concept of a binary digit. His paper "A Mathematical Theory of Communication" (1948) laid the groundwork for all modern digital systems.

Watch how the Enigma machine encrypts messages and learn about its critical design flaw

Using settings selected from a series of rotors and a plugboard that let operators swap letters with any of their choosing, the machine lit up the output letter for each letter typed. While this system could generate messages requiring any of 150 quintillion potential keys, the machine's reflector never encrypted a letter as itself, providing an entry point for exploiting the system.

The science of cryptography, including methods to encrypt data and how to break encryption

Monoalphabetic ciphers use a set of rules to replace each letter with another consistently, making them susceptible to brute force attacks that try every kind of replacement. While more complex ciphers can transform text in less obvious ways, because certain letters are used more often than others, an analysis of letter frequency may reveal patterns that help uncover the rules that make up a cipher.

How quantum computers can empower Shor's algorithm to break digital encryption

Secure communications largely rely on numeric keys generated by multiplying two enormous prime numbers together, and it is computationally impractical to determine these primes by trying to divide by every possible one. While Shor's algorithm can provide better guesses for this brute-force approach, it relies on a number that is difficult to determine on classical computers but much easier to calculate using the simultaneous computations enabled by quantum superposition.

Computational and biological systems share fundamental principles, like randomness

Proposed by Alan Turing and John von Neumann, the concept originates from how DNA and computers run by executing encoded instructions in parallel. The advent of AI and the temperature parameter has seen neural networks mimic the randomness of protein encoding.

Create your own cipher by combining mathematical operations and encryption protocols

This tool allows users to build an encryption workflow in which the output of one customizable function becomes the input to another, thereby creating undiscovered methods for obscuring information via a series of ciphers.

A look at historical ciphers, from the Spartan 'scytale' to the Navajo Code Talkers

From the Greek word for "hidden writing," cryptography in Ancient Greece took the form of batons around which a long strip of leather or parchment was wrapped, after which messages were written. Recipients needed a scytale of the correct width to encircle received ribbons and reveal the message. Members of the Navajo Nation created a code that remained unbroken throughout its use in World War II.

How Anthropic's frontier red team assesses the dangers of its AI tools

The team of researchers deliberately attempts to breach the safeguards in Claude to determine whether the large language model can be used to commit cyberattacks, develop biological weapons, or enable other harmful behavior. Unlike many other red teams, Anthropic shares its findings and how it resolved them publicly to help build transparency and credibility.

Breaking down Anthropic's products and why their models are named after literary forms

Since March 2024, the Claude series of large language models includes three varieties—Haiku, Sonnet, and Opus—named to metaphorically illustrate increasing complexity and computing power. Claude Code can perform software engineering tasks for developers and, as of January 2026, writes nearly all of Anthropic's code alongside Opus 4.5.

View how AES—the global standard for symmetric encryption—works

Established by the National Institute of Standards and Technology in 2001, the Advanced Encryption Standard transforms plaintext into ciphertext using multiple rounds of processing, including substitution, transposition, and mixing. Larger keys undergo more rounds to produce 16-byte blocks of scrambled data, with 256-bit AES keys taking 3.31 × 10⁵⁶ years to decrypt via brute force.

Comparing ChatGPT with Claude, the latter excels in writing and coding projects

As of December 2025, Claude Code—Anthropic's AI-powered coding assistant—accounts for 54% of the enterprise coding market, and, while subjective, some report that Claude provides more natural-sounding writing. However, ChatGPT can create images and videos, not just generate text, and provides a broader set of applications via custom GPTs.

A timeline of how Claude Code was used to execute cyberespionage

In September 2025, a Chinese state-sponsored group targeted 30 large tech companies, financial institutions, chemical manufacturing companies, and government agencies by manipulating Claude Code, having succeeded in infiltrating a small subset. The cyberattack is believed to have been the first of its scale carried out without major human intervention.

Jacqueline Jenkins-Nye—Bill Nye's mother—worked as a code-breaker in World War II

While in the Navy, she was recruited to work on Enigma to help decode messages from the German military. Historians estimate that the efforts of code-breakers may have collectively shortened the war by as much as two years.

The first algorithmic random number generator was developed in 1946

Although previous methods of randomness involved physical tools with limited outcomes, such as dice, or relied on chaotic variables for number generation, such as electronic noise, John Von Neumann's middle-square method turned the problem into a mathematical computation. It has since been replaced by methods that generate numbers from unique initial values, such as the time on a clock.

Visualize how passkeys, which rely on asymmetric cryptography to authenticate users, work

After using biometrics or a PIN to access the private key stored on a device, it is combined with a random number generated by the site to produce a cryptographic signature. This signature is verified using the site's public key, allowing a user to log in without entering a password. This reduces the risk of fraudulent messages—phishing attacks—and data breaches.

The story of two female programmers running the simulations behind chaos theory's discovery

Margaret Hamilton and Ellen Fetter worked on MIT's 800-pound Royal McBee LGP-30 computer, which was fed binary code on paper tape to perform computations. Among the computations performed were those involving equations describing the motion of gas in a circulating fluid for Edward Lorenz, widely considered the father of chaos theory.

There are more chess game variations than observable atoms in the universe

Mathematician Claude Shannon estimated there are 10 to the 120th power variations of chess games possible. Known as the "Shannon number," this is more than the estimated number of atoms in the cosmos.

Computer pioneer Alan Turing was also an elite runner

Alan Turing is credited with helping to found modern computer science, in addition to cracking the Nazi code known as Enigma. Beyond these world-historical achievements, the British mathematician also nearly represented his country in the Olympics in the marathon, running just 11 minutes slower than the eventual gold recipient at the 1948 games. Read more on this lesser-known aspect of the man here.

English mathematician Ada Lovelace wrote the first computer algorithm a century before computers existed and hypothesized that computing devices would one day be able to compose music—foreseeing the generative AI systems of today.

When you complete a CAPTCHA on a website to prove you are human, you may be unknowingly training algorithms for self-driving cars, whose systems require training data to help identify crosswalks, bicycles, and other outdoor objects.

Pareidolia: the cognitive bias of finding meaning in randomness

Many people equate "random" with "well-spaced," creating a cognitive bias that influences how people interpret events. This article explains how people tend to assume a generative force behind the patterns produced by randomness. This phenomenon, known as pareidolia, is seen in claims ranging from backward messages hidden in reversed audio recordings to tea leaf readings.

A vending machine run with Anthropic's AI went out of business after it was convinced to give away items for free and sell a video game console.

Bitcoin's founder has always remained anonymous

A pseudonym used by the person or group of people who created bitcoin—the first decentralized cryptocurrency—the real identity of Satoshi Nakamoto has baffled millions of enthusiasts for years.

When you complete a CAPTCHA on a website to prove you are human, you may be unknowingly training algorithms for self-driving cars, whose systems require training data to help identify crosswalks, bicycles, and other outdoor objects.

Listen to the 'world's first' song made by a quantum computer and AI

UK startup, Moth, collaborated with electronic artist ILĀ to create the world's first song using quantum-powered generative AI. The technology has the potential to help create more personalized content based on input parameters, such as music or dialogue in games.

Later in life, the clock in Grace Hopper's office ran counterclockwise

Acknowledging that most people have "an enormous tendency to resist change," Hopper's clock served as a reminder for the computer scientist that just because things have been done a certain way does not mean they should forever remain that way: "They love to say, 'We've always done it this way.' I try to fight that." (Some users may experience a paywall.)

Radioactive elements can introduce software errors because the ionizing radiation they produce can detach electrons from atoms, and computer code relies on the distribution of electrons.

Mathematicians often solve problems using wordless mental processes

It's a common technique among expert mathematicians, where thinkers rely on intuition, blurry perceptions and subconscious work—no writing, no formulas. The state is distinct from daydreaming, and often relies on sudden illuminations stemming from extended periods of subconscious reflection.

Breaking the genome into random segments accelerated the Human Genome Project

Hierarchical shotgun sequencing is a method for determining an organism's genome by fragmenting DNA before sequencing. By creating fragments with overlapping nucleotide bases, the DNA is reassembled by matching fragment ends.

Clever Hans was a 1900s horse that was believed to be able to solve math equations, tell time, and read and comprehend German, until a psychology student discovered how he got his answers.

Chaos theory—informally known as the butterfly effect—is the reason why weather forecasts are presented with probabilities rather than certainties.

Elk Cloner, the first computer virus to spread in public, was written as a practical joke by Richard Skrenta, a Pittsburgh high school student.

Search a massive database of over 4 decades of clues from the TV quiz show 'Jeopardy!'

The name 'Silicon Valley' arose from the founding of Shockley Semiconductor Laboratory in Fairchild Semiconductor in 1956-57, founded near Stanford University in Palo Alto

Read a deep dive on the 'all-purpose healing' peptide BPC-157.

In 2025, four executives from large tech companies were given positions in the US Army Reserves—including Palantir Chief Technology Officer Shyam Sankar, which reinforced Palantir's ties with the US military and its role as a leading defense partner.

Visualize how CRISPR-Cas9—a type of immune system used by single-celled organisms to attack invasive viruses—targets and makes precise changes to a gene's DNA.

Apeirophobia is an overwhelming fear of living forever, perhaps stemming from the brain's inability to conceptualize an infinite life.

The idea for the Federal Reserve was conceived in secret in 1910—with bankers donning duck hunt gear for disguise while traveling to a remote country club on Georgia's Jekyll Island

According to the physics of black holes, our 4D reality may be a hologram—a projection of information coded on a 2D surface on the edge of the universe.

The animatronic shark from Steven Spielberg's 'Jaws,' the first modern blockbuster, was a complex underwater apparatus called 'Bruce.'

SpongeBob exemplifies Aristotle's philosophy for living well because he understands that happiness doesn't come from external factors like money, recognition, or power.

Before humans, the Soviet Union and the United States sent animals—including apes, dogs, and cats—to space during the Space Race.

Art theft is the third-largest source of criminal revenues worldwide, thanks in part to the subjective nature of valuing a work of art.

American short story writer Flannery O'Connor raised 40 peacocks, which became potent symbols for her fiction's elegant violence

Some coin denominations have ridges etched on their sides, partly to prevent counterfeiting, in a practice called 'reeding.'

A small portion of The Winstons' 'Amen, Brother,' an obscure '60s gospel record, is the basis for thousands of hip-hop tracks, making it one of the most sampled records ever that's informally known as 'the Amen break.'

US intelligence allegedly pursued more than 600 schemes to assassinate Cuban revolutionary Fidel Castro.

For centuries, it was common to sleep in two shifts: a few hours at the beginning of the night, and a longer period beginning around midnight

The US Constitution is widely regarded as the longest-standing written national constitution still in force—see how it has influenced rights worldwide.