Watch how the Enigma machine encrypts messages and learn about its critical design flaw

The history and operation of SIGABA, the US counterpart of the Nazi Enigma machine

Developed by the US Army and US Navy, over 10,000 of these machines were deployed by the end of World War II to encrypt messages for the armed forces using three series of rotors. The device would continue to be used until the 1950s, while personal computers were shown to possess enough computing power to crack it by 2021.

The science of cryptography, including methods to encrypt data and how to break encryption

Monoalphabetic ciphers use a set of rules to replace each letter with another consistently, making them susceptible to brute force attacks that try every kind of replacement. While more complex ciphers can transform text in less obvious ways, because certain letters are used more often than others, an analysis of letter frequency may reveal patterns that help uncover the rules that make up a cipher.

Claude Shannon, for whom Anthropic's AI tools are named, proved the existence of an unbreakable cipher

In the one-time pad approach, the encryption key is randomly generated and of equal length to the plaintext. This randomness ensures that every possible plaintext is equally likely—RBBHN can mean HELLO, SOLVE, CODES, and so on, using a different key—while matching the message and key lengths prevents the appearance of patterns that can be exploited.

Create your own cipher by combining mathematical operations and encryption protocols

This tool allows users to build an encryption workflow in which the output of one customizable function becomes the input to another, thereby creating undiscovered methods for obscuring information via a series of ciphers.

Explore a visual guide to how quantum computers can crack RSA encryption

In 1994, Peter Shor introduced an algorithm that showed a quantum computer could efficiently factor the product of two very large prime numbers, undermining the mathematics that makes RSA so secure. While using larger keys can delay the decryption time of quantum computers, this solution increases the time it takes to encrypt data, which may become impractical.

View how AES—the global standard for symmetric encryption—works

Established by the National Institute of Standards and Technology in 2001, the Advanced Encryption Standard transforms plaintext into ciphertext using multiple rounds of processing, including substitution, transposition, and mixing. Larger keys undergo more rounds to produce 16-byte blocks of scrambled data, with 256-bit AES keys taking 3.31 × 10⁵⁶ years to decrypt via brute force.

Security technician hacks a voting machine to reveal its vulnerabilities

A technician bought an old, likely-decommissioned voting machine from 2013 and took it apart to see how a would-be hacker might be able to exploit its vulnerabilities. Get a sense of the needs for secure, up-to-date voting machines with this...

How end-to-end encryption protects messages, even from service providers

Using symmetric and asymmetric cryptography, data is encrypted on the sender's device before being transmitted across application servers that lack the key needed to decrypt it. The message is not decrypted until it reaches the recipient's device, which uses their private key to recover the plaintext. E2EE's effectiveness has led to its adoption by WhatsApp and Signal.

The story of Kryptos, the long unsolved cryptographic sculpture outside the CIA's headquarters

Made by American artist Jim Sanborn, the sculpture features four copper plates engraved with messages written with the 26 letters of the Latin alphabet and question marks. The last of these plates was solved in 2025, but the piece remains of interest to cryptoanalysts.

Breaking down how Dickinson viewed letters as an extension of her poetry

The poet's many correspondences were dashed with playful arrangements of text, offering her pen pals surprises once they opened their envelopes. Jana Dambrogio and Daniel Starza Smith explain how Dickinson even creatively used the 19th-century security technique of letterlocking in poetic ways.

The story of two female programmers running the simulations behind chaos theory's discovery

Margaret Hamilton and Ellen Fetter worked on MIT's 800-pound Royal McBee LGP-30 computer, which was fed binary code on paper tape to perform computations. Among the computations performed were those involving equations describing the motion of gas in a circulating fluid for Edward Lorenz, widely considered the father of chaos theory.

Elk Cloner, the first computer virus to spread in public, was written as a practical joke by Richard Skrenta, a Pittsburgh high school student.

Understanding the Diffie-Hellman key exchange, an example of public key cryptography

Published in 1976 by Whitfield Diffie and Martin Hellman, the system involves two parties combining each of their unique private keys with a public key using a mathematical function. The combinations are exchanged and mixed to establish a common key that no third party can determine. The Diffie-Hellman system underlies many encryption protocols for internet traffic.

Elk Cloner, the first computer virus to spread in public, was written as a practical joke by Richard Skrenta, a Pittsburgh high school student.

Onion routing disguises internet traffic in layers resembling a nesting doll

Data is encrypted at least three times before being sent to a node—a server that can only decrypt one layer. Then, the underlying encrypted data is relayed to another node, and the process repeats until all layers are decrypted. Thousands of possible nodes make it extremely difficult to trace activity within the system.

Solid neon mirrors help trap single electrons to create stable quantum bits

Researchers created this new unit of information for a quantum computer by trapping a single electron near the surface of solid neon. The electron was held in its quantum state by attraction to its mirror image.

A joke about mercury in an elevator led to the invention of emoticons

A false message about mercury contamination was posted in response to a physics problem on Carnegie Mellon's discussion board in 1982, which some users took seriously. The need to indicate which messages were jokes led to the creation of facial expressions using special characters.

Turing machines consist of an infinite tape, a read-write mechanism and instructions

Based on the information the mechanism reads on the tape, the machine follows the applicable instruction (e.g., if you read a 1, write a 0) and may proceed to the next cell of data. Given enough time and memory, Alan Turing proposed such a machine could perform any computation.

Watch how algorithms can be designed to train themselves and self-improve without human input, to the point where the optimized code is too complex for programmers to understand.

English mathematician Ada Lovelace wrote the first computer algorithm a century before computers existed and hypothesized that computing devices would one day be able to compose music—foreseeing the generative AI systems of today.

Watch a tour of an integrated circuit fabrication plant

Explore the protocols in place to ensure clean rooms have no dust to jeopardize the integrity of silicon wafers as they are transformed into working microchips. Layering, photolithography, etching, and chemical vapor deposition are shown alongside digital visualizations.

Radioactive elements can introduce software errors because the ionizing radiation they produce can detach electrons from atoms, and computer code relies on the distribution of electrons.

In 2019, a laptop loaded with six of the worst malware in history and described as 'an exhibit of historical weaponry' sold for $1.3M.

Specific imperfections are needed to make Swiss cheese

Impurities in the milk are critical for the formation of holes in Emmental. The cleanliness at farms today could potentially eliminate the iconic characteristic, though cheesemakers are finding a solution to preserve the holes that help define the cheese.

In 2025, Apple devices couldn't send audio messages with the phrase 'Dave & Buster's'

The transcription engine in iOS 18, which converts speech to text in the Messages app, had been incorrectly processing phrases with the ampersand ("&") symbol. The error was corrected via a bug fix after extensive user error reports.

Visualize how CRISPR-Cas9—a type of immune system used by single-celled organisms to attack invasive viruses—targets and makes precise changes to a gene's DNA.

The locksmith who posthumously opened Prince's music vault

When legendary musician Prince died in 2016, he left behind thousands of unreleased songs in a locked vault, and no one knew the combination (even Prince had forgotten it before his death). Safecracker Dave McOmie was called in to break the 6,000-pound Mosler American Century vault by microdrilling into it and using a periscope to view the combination lock.

Efforts to build touch-enabled machines highlight the complexity of human touch

The challenges that engineers are facing as they try to reproduce a human's ability to touch and also give robots the ability to interpret that kind of sensory flow are furthering our understanding of the myriad intricacies of human touch—and the challenges in emulating it.

A brief guide to espionage

Spies have one of the most challenging and dangerous jobs in the world, risking their lives and legacy to extract secrets in the interest of their country. This in-depth explainer breaks down one of the profession's oft-ignored aspects: The...

The history of many kitchen appliances involves unexpected discoveries and applications, including wartime radar turned hamster defroster and replacing an 'ice king' with heat-stealing boxes.

Visualize how transformer architecture generates an LLM's outputs

Transformer architecture is the neural network framework upon which large language models predict and generate text based on user inputs. This interactive lets you explore the "thinking" a GPT does to generate responses based on your input.

Different enzymes can be used in the CRISPR system to modify how DNA is cut

The system uses RNA sequences to guide enzymes like Cas9 to specific spots in DNA, where they cut or modify genes. Unlike Cas9, the Cpf1 enzyme makes staggered cuts, which helps insert new DNA more cleanly.

The idea for the Federal Reserve was conceived in secret in 1910—with bankers donning duck hunt gear for disguise while traveling to a remote country club on Georgia's Jekyll Island

Discover the catastrophic consequences of a failure of the US electrical grid—something that is more likely than many Americans think.

Search a massive database of over 4 decades of clues from the TV quiz show 'Jeopardy!'

Clever Hans was a 1900s horse that was believed to be able to solve math equations, tell time, and read and comprehend German, until a psychology student discovered how he got his answers.

A vending machine run with Anthropic's AI went out of business after it was convinced to give away items for free and sell a video game console.

Explore chaos in this simulation of two double pendulums, where small differences in the release angles produce wildly different outcomes.

Some coin denominations have ridges etched on their sides, partly to prevent counterfeiting, in a practice called 'reeding.'

The Mona Lisa's celebrity status and repeated restorations have obscured what made the painting so revolutionary for its time

See how fireworks are made and learn how metals like magnesium and copper are responsible for different colors.

Explore what it's like inside a patient isolation unit, used in situations such as treating a patient or suspected patient with Ebola.

Gerrymandering works through two techniques: cracking opposing voters across districts to dilute their power, and packing them into a few to waste their votes in lopsided majorities.

Explore fun facts from the USPS, including unique post office buildings, a stamp that traveled past Pluto, and more.

Watch this video that uses Lego bricks to explain how venture capital works.

Legendary architect Frank Lloyd Wright designed the SC Johnson headquarters in Wisconsin, aiming to make a cathedral-like workplace

The first image of a black hole was captured by creating an Earth-sized virtual observatory from a network of eight radio telescopes.

American short story writer Flannery O'Connor raised 40 peacocks, which became potent symbols for her fiction's elegant violence

In 1945, Surrealist artist Salvador Dalí and legendary animator Walt Disney began collaborating on a short film that was not completed until 2003, years after both men had died.

Fish populations in the Great Barrier Reef have increased after installing waterproof speakers on the ocean floor that played recordings of sounds from healthy coral reefs.