See a timeline of landmark discoveries in the field of genetics

See a timeline of the Human Genome Project

Despite starting on October 1, 1990, the goal of mapping all the DNA found in a human being was first planned in 1984. The project would reach its goals two years ahead of schedule in 2003.

Fully sequenced human genome will help scientists better understand disease

April marks the 20-year anniversary of the completion of the Human Genome Project, a monumental achievement that provided the first map of the human genetic code and advanced our understanding of human biology, disease, and potential treatments....

The Human Genome Project spawned numerous spinoff genetics projects

The Human Genome Project led to the development of techniques later applied to projects in microbial and plant biology, epigenomics, environmental and cancer genomes, and more. In the spirit of the HGP, data from these projects has been made freely available to develop new technologies.

The history of the gene: an interactive timeline

Humans didn’t need modern technology to figure out that kids tend to look like their parents. But what did humans believe about genetics before we knew about DNA or cells in general? Explore this interactive timeline to see how philosophers and scientists throughout the ages tried to explain how traits are passed from generation to generation.

Fruit fly experiments helped identify genes responsible for major body development

The insects' fast life cycle and affordability have allowed geneticists to quickly identify which genes are responsible for limbs, eyes, and other body structures by inducing mutations. The same genes may be responsible for different parts of a species' body, such as limb-building genes being responsible for wing pigmentation in butterflies.

Think we decoded the genome in 2000? Nope. It was 2022.

Two decades after the draft sequence of the human genome was unveiled to great fanfare, a team of 99 scientists has finally deciphered the entire thing. They have filled in vast gaps and corrected a long list of errors in previous versions, giving us a new view of our DNA.

What is genetics?

What is a genome, and how are traits passed from generation to generation? Learn how pea plants helped launch the study of genetics and how the field of genetics research has evolved over time.

Common genetic disorders

As research continues, it's clear that disease and genetics go hand in hand. Here's a selection of 50 National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI) articles providing basic information on genetic, orphan, and rare diseases caused by mutations in DNA sequences, whether inherited from parents or brought about by outside factors.

Modern genetic testing stems from a 1950s discovery about the cause of Down syndrome

Scientists found that an additional copy of chromosome 21 causes the disease and developed an approach to stain chromosomes so they could be manually sorted and counted, which is called karyotyping. The breakthrough discovery by Marthe Gautier, a young French doctor and cytogenetics researcher, was appropriated by a male colleague, who listed himself as the lead author of the study reporting the finding.

View a collection of historical documents about molecular biology's history

The collection features materials related to those involved in the discovery of DNA and provides historical context for the discoveries of RNA, various viruses, and important bioproteins. The items include photographs, business correspondence, manuscripts, and scientific instruments.

Watch how Sanger sequencing kickstarted the first generation of DNA sequencing

Sanger sequencing is a foundational DNA sequencing technology developed in 1977. The Nobel Prize-winning discovery uses fluorescent dyes at the end of DNA chains, which are sorted by length through electrophoresis, to determine the order of nucleotide bases.

A timeline of human fossil discoveries

A key part of writing a coherent story about our origins is finding and identifying the remains of our ancestors and understanding their significance. Scientists will not always agree on identifications and opinions will change as new find are made and new ways of studying them are developed.

Genetic engineering has accelerated millennia of altering various crops' genes

Although farmers have long cross-bred crops to obtain plants with specific colors, sizes, and other characteristics, these processes took significant time. Today, genetic modification in agriculture involves scientists altering an organism's DNA for various purposes, including enhancing pathogen resistance, removing allergens, and delaying spoilage.

A student researcher working on the Human Genome Project shares their perspective

In a conversation with Ewan Birney, Director of the European Bio-informatics Institute, he discusses what it was like to be a PhD student working on the Human Genome Project in the months before the draft announcement and its impact on him and the field of genetics.

Advance genetic research by playing these scientific video games

Computers produce so much information that researchers can’t properly analyze all the data produced, and the overload can also lead computers to make mistakes. Researchers are increasingly turning to citizen scientists—members of the public who are willing to volunteer—to help them make sense of data when computers can’t. This article details a few of the ways you can contribute to genetics research by playing video games.

Timeline of cancer research milestones

While cancer remains incurable, there's been so much progress in its treatment over the last two decades. Nature provides an abridged history of milestones and major triumphs in cancer research and treatment. Start in the year 2000, and see how much has changed in the first quarter of the new millennium

All humans share 99.9% of the same DNA

Of the 3 billion base pairs that make up the human genome—the complete set of genetic material for the species—the diversity of humans is the result of variations in about 3 million molecular bases. The closest nonhuman genetic match is the chimp, with 98.8% similar genetics.

Svante Pääbo's life work was to discover the Neanderthal in our genes

Geneticist Svante Paabo reconstructed the genome of long-extinct human relatives, showing we have more in common with Neandertals than previously thought. Read up on his research and its impact on the wider scientific community.

Explore the differences between healthy and cancerous cells using a DNA microarray

In this simulation, you will learn how scientists use microarrays to experiment on thousands of genes at the same time. By determining which genes are on or off, users can identify those that contribute to cancer formation.

Visualize how CRISPR-Cas9—a type of immune system used by single-celled organisms to attack invasive viruses—targets and makes precise changes to a gene's DNA.

Rosalind Franklin uncovered the molecular structure of the tobacco mosaic virus

Franklin's work revealed the role of ribonucleic acid in virus infectivity, contributing to a foundational understanding of genetics and virology. Her molecular model of the virus was featured as the centerpiece at the 1958 Brussels World's Fair.

Mapping the origins of the world's crops

Food has evolved alongside humanity, and through globalized trade, much of the world can enjoy foods once isolated to one region. Examine where your favorite foods originated from and see how diet differs across cultures with these interactive...

How we helped make Aedes aegypti mosquitoes such a problem

Mosquito genome sequencing data suggests that Aedes aegypti mosquitoes first started specializing on human blood around 5,000 years ago—when climates shifted and humans started domesticating plants in Africa and stored large amounts of water that may have attracted the bugs.

View an historical mural depicting the NSF's impact across seven decades

From 1950 to 2020, the National Science Foundation supported discovery-based, exploratory research that led to numerous breakthroughs, including the development of supercomputing centers, 3D printing technologies, biometric identification systems, an understanding of vector-borne illnesses, a DNA amplification technique, mobile meteorology units, and scientific education and literacy programming.

Global life expectancy has more than doubled since the 1850s

The human species experienced a dramatic increase in expected lifespan over the past 150 years. Antibiotics, improved sanitation, and better worldwide food distribution are a few factors contributing to this rapid transformation. Use this interactive resource to explore longevity gains over time and compare these improvements across the globe.

Visualizing the genetics of SARS-CoV-2

The COVID-19 pandemic, caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus, began with an outbreak in Wuhan, China in December 2019, and rapidly spread worldwide in early 2020. On March 11, 2020, the World Health Organization declared COVID-19 a global pandemic, leading to widespread lockdowns, travel restrictions, and economic disruptions.

See how each of the more than two million known species relates to each other—and to common ancestors—in this zoomable tree of life.

As of 2025, the most cited papers in science include a review of graphene, methods to improve image recognition, streamlining electron density calculations, and optimizing protein studies.

The first line of 'immortal' human cells, which can divide indefinitely and are used in scientific research, was nonconsensually taken from a Black woman.

Explore an interactive map built from more than 100,000 survey responses on where people find joy in their lives

At the beginning of the 20th century, a group of young men ate standard American food—replete with food additives like borax and formaldehyde—as part of government research to better understand food safety.

A century of Billboard issues documenting the evolution of popular music.

The name 'Silicon Valley' arose from the founding of Shockley Semiconductor Laboratory in Fairchild Semiconductor in 1956-57, founded near Stanford University in Palo Alto

Before humans, the Soviet Union and the United States sent animals—including apes, dogs, and cats—to space during the Space Race.

Visualize the path of every solar eclipse from 1900 to 2099 and see what each looks like when observed from different locations on Earth.

Listen to an in-depth conversation on the links between Parkinson's disease and herbicide exposure and the challenging pace of scientific investigation.

Explore the archaeological treasures of Pompeii, the city buried under volcanic ash when Mount Vesuvius erupted in 79 CE.

See how Ebola tore through Guinea, Sierra Leone, and Liberia in 2014-2016.

English mathematician Ada Lovelace wrote the first computer algorithm a century before computers existed and hypothesized that computing devices would one day be able to compose music—foreseeing the generative AI systems of today.

Studies suggest when you sleep is as important as how much you get, and syncing with your circadian rhythms may lead to less fatigue and improved long-term health outcomes

The US Constitution is widely regarded as the longest-standing written national constitution still in force—see how it has influenced rights worldwide.

After 25 people used virtual reality headsets to practice flying with virtual wings—flapping their arms—their visual cortex responded to the wings almost as if they were real arms, treating them as body parts.

Long before Major League Baseball began allowing instant replay for balls and strikes, an umpire reluctantly used the technology to determine whether a hit was a home run, a move that inadvertently ushered in a new era for the sport.

The hormonal disorder PCOS was renamed PMOS in 2026, a move designed to improve care and research by shifting the focus to the hormonal causes of this condition that affects 1 in 8 women.

The first horror movie is believed to be George Méliès' 1986 short 'The Haunted Castle,' which pioneered the use of special effects

In 1939, baseball star Lou Gehrig delivered his inspirational 'Luckiest Man' speech after retiring due to the health condition that now bears his name.

US housing costs have risen by roughly 175% between 1991 and 2026—but a growing number of Gen Zers are becoming homeowners anyway. In 2025, 4% of homebuyers were Gen Z, up from 3% the year before.

Learn how to read a prospectus, the juicy document that any company must file with the SEC before going public.

According to the physics of black holes, our 4D reality may be a hologram—a projection of information coded on a 2D surface on the edge of the universe.

'Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone,' a work by American painter Thomas Moran, inspired Congress to establish Yellowstone National Park.