Where does your glass come from?

Glass can be endlessly recycled without losing quality

Sand from specialized mines is thoroughly cleaned and melted at more than 1,600 degrees Celsius before being poured onto liquid tin and evenly spread out to form glass sheets. Some factories are designed to reprocess 100% of glass scraps created when cutting glass with diamond-tipped blades or lasers.

When did people start making and using glass?

This article details the search for the ancient origins of glass, a now-common item through which archaeologists can spot histories of trade and innovation. Bronze Age glass was made from crushed quartz instead of sand, and artisans could color glass with materials such as cobalt. These trace metallic add-ons have given scientists a vital clue into the origins of glass, which is currently debated as either Egypt or the Near East.

Silicon must be 99.9999999% pure to be used in creating microchips

After the mined quartz is processed in an electric-arc furnace to remove oxygen from the silica, it undergoes the Siemens process, where it is bathed in hydrochloric acid. The liquid produced in the reaction undergoes multiple distillations to produce ultra-pure silicon in the end.

Fulgurites are glass sculptures made by lightning vaporizing sand

Sometimes referred to as fossilized lightning, these tube-like structures are formed when high-temperature electrical currents fuse mineral grains into crystals, which can feature branching patterns resembling filaments of current. Their name derives from "fulgur," the Latin word for lightning.

Geode formation begins with trapped gas bubbles in igneous or sedimentary rock

Over thousands or millions of years, water seeps into the cavity created by the bubble and deposits minerals, which slowly build and crystallize into quartz, agate, amethyst or other crystals.

Nearly all of China's construction sand is artificial

Roughly 50 billion tons of sand are used in construction every year, mostly extracted from oceans, beaches, and rivers. To avoid depleting natural sand deposits, China crushes rocks and used materials to create an artificial sand, which it uses in 80% of its construction projects.

How silica gel took over the world

Silica gel packets are those sugar packet-like bags that keep packaged foods and more dry and free of mildew. First invented in the early 20th century, they saw great commercial success starting in 1927, being deployed in traded goods across the world. This simple invention allows modern supply chains to extend across the globe by extending the preservation of shipped goods.

The first glasshouse was constructed in 1931

The Maison de Verre in Paris was built to house a doctor's office on the ground level and an apartment upstairs. Unlike the typical model that would follow, this glass house exposed very little of the home's interior.

A diamond's color comes from impurities, defects, and unique formation processes

While most diamonds are transparent and sparkly, the presence of nitrogen and boron during formation can make them yellow, orange, or blue. Radiation can produce green diamonds, and structural deformities can introduce red hues.

Create anything from the elements in Little Alchemy 2

Various ancient cultures believed the most abundant substances in the world were its basic elements: earth, water, air, and fire. We may know better now, but you can make almost anything from those four things. Little Alchemy 2 is a fun, cartoonish game that allows users to create more complex items from simple substances.

The composition of magma affects the explosivity of volcanic eruptions

Silicate-rich magma contains extensive molecular chains that trap dissolved gases like water and carbon dioxide. These gases build pressure until they violently escape, creating explosive eruptions. Low-silica magmas produce gentler eruptions categorized as effusive.

See how fireworks are made and learn how metals like magnesium and copper are responsible for different colors.

See how fireworks are made and which metals are responsible for different colors

This roughly five-minute video breaks down details about how pyrotechnicians make fireworks, including that magnesium is responsible for white fireworks, copper salts for blue, and charcoal for orange.

Local limestone made waterproof cement for the Erie Canal

In 1818, engineer Canvass White discovered that limestone near Chittenango, New York, could be processed into hydraulic (or waterproof) cement. This breakthrough replaced costly European imports, enabling watertight locks and aqueducts and revolutionizing American construction.

How to make LSD

Lysergic acid diethylamide, often shortened to LSD, comes from ergot, a parasitic fungus that can be found in grains. Chemists rearrange the fungus' chemical structure or the structure of an ergot derivative through complex chemical reactions, transforming it into the hallucinogenic bicycle-shaped LSD crystal. Due to the partially synthetic drug's criminalization, many of the details of modern LSD crafting honed by "underground chemists" are kept secret.

Cloud formation requires water vapor and condensation nuclei to build from

The nuclei—particles like dust, salt, and smoke—act like jumpstarts that water molecules can start to accumulate onto to form clouds. Condensation nuclei are about 1/100th the size of cloud droplets, which are mostly water.

Breaking down the different types of drinking water, from alkaline to sparkling

While tap water is regulated by the EPA, environmental and infrastructural factors can introduce contaminants, which filtering can help to remove. Distilled water has had all of its mineral contaminants removed and may be used in laboratory settings, but mineral water has them added in for taste or to promote health.

View a sample of objects surprisingly derived from crude oil, including chewing gum and lipstick

Crude oil processing produces a variety of fuels and the building blocks for plastics, but it also distills out the hydrocarbons used to make aspirin, Teflon, vinyl, crayons, candles, Tupperware, roofing shingles, asphalt pavement, hair dye, anesthetics, food-grade lubricants, polyester, synthetic rubber, and resins for items like dentures.

Estée Lauder used wealthy people's bathrooms to curate the color of the jars her products were sold in

While Lauder herself was just starting her cosmetics empire, she knew wealthy people who could afford high-quality products would always be her target market. In order to make her products as appealing to this market as possible, Lauder held up different colors of glass bottles in people's bathrooms to see what would look best with their decorations before landing on a turquoise bottle with a gold cap.

'Breather holes' in airplane windows help manage cabin pressure

Airplane windows have three layers of acrylic: the super durable outside layer, the inner pane which acts like a "scratch" surface, and the middle pane with the tiny hole. This bleed hole allows pressurized cabin air to be borne by the strong outer pane while preventing the inner pane from breaking.

Carbon dioxide is the most produced greenhouse gas from human activities

In 2022, about 79.7% of US greenhouse gas emissions were carbon dioxide, produced through chemical reactions in processes such as cement production and the burning of fossil fuels, solid waste, trees, and other biological materials. Methane (11.1%), nitrous oxide (6.1%), fluorinated gases (3.1%), and trace amounts of solid and liquid aerosol were also created.

Is ice slippery because of amorphization—a chaos of molecules caused by sliding?

Traditional explanations cite three factors that make ice slippery: pressure, friction and so-called premelting. A fourth has been proposed in recent years: amorphization, that sliding along some surfaces creates molecular disorder, causing liquid-like behavior.

Explore a gallery of Bill Nye's energy-efficient home

The Southern California home is painted pale yellow and features double-pane, low-emissivity glass windows to help keep temperatures low. Solar panels are used for electricity and hot water, while Solatube domes and ducts illuminate rooms from above throughout the day, even when the sun is low in the sky.

Scientists create contact lenses that give you infrared vision

Scientists have created lenses that use nanoparticles to convert infrared light into visible light, allowing human eyes to observe previously invisible parts of the electromagnetic spectrum. This technology may help colorblind individuals by converting colors they cannot see into wavelengths they can.

Sculpting the unrivalled stone, marble

Marble is considered the chief material for sculpture due to its intrinsic beauty, stemming from its white translucence which makes the light appear to come from the stone. In this video, sculptor Simon Smith recreates Donatello's 15th-century Prato Pulpit panel which still hangs on the outside of a church. Watch as he explains the painstaking process and reveals the beautiful final output.

Lessons learned from Steve Jobs

From predicting our screen-filled future in 1983 to slashing Apple's product line in 1997, Steve Jobs believed in focus, simplicity, and the fusion of technology and art. His philosophies still influence how products are built and marketed today.

All rainbows are 'raincircles' caused by water droplets separating white sunlight into a spectrum of colors, but Earth's surface blocks the bottom half of the circle from our line of sight.

The Great Salt Lake's distinct dual coloration results from high-salinity organisms that only live in the northern portion and produce a purple protein.

Scientists can determine Earth's past climate conditions by analyzing air trapped in microscopic bubbles within ice cores—columns of compressed snow layers that build up over hundreds of thousands of years.

The name 'Silicon Valley' arose from the founding of Shockley Semiconductor Laboratory in Fairchild Semiconductor in 1956-57, founded near Stanford University in Palo Alto

Dirty lightning is a thunderstorm created from friction between rising and falling flows of ash and smoke during volcanic eruptions.

Legendary architect Frank Lloyd Wright designed the SC Johnson headquarters in Wisconsin, aiming to make a cathedral-like workplace

Objects can be 3D printed with light by projecting 2D computerized tomography (CT) scans onto rotating cylinders of resin, which solidify upon exposure.

Dorothy's famous entrance into Oz in 'The Wizard of Oz' relied on analog tricks, including a body double and sepia-toned paint, as much as it did on technology

Budweiser stores yeast derived from the original 1800s strain in a secret bunker, which only the Head of Yeast Management can access—not even the CEO

An investigation suggests a Scottish island became awash in forever chemicals via seafoam and seaspray—raising questions about what that means for the safety of other coastal areas.

The boiling temperature of water decreases with increasing elevation because the molecules need less energy to overcome the lower atmospheric pressure associated with thinner air.

The word 'jazz' evolved from 'jasm,' 19th-century American slang for 'energy'

The first line of 'immortal' human cells, which can divide indefinitely and are used in scientific research, was nonconsensually taken from a Black woman.

The price of gas is a composite made up of several different factors, with the federal gas tax making up less than 20% of what drivers pay at the pump.

Sony set the standard for cylinder-shaped batteries when it repurposed manufacturing equipment used to make rolls of magnetic recording tape.

Netflix profits when you're not watching, and its movies are designed that way—read a detail-rich critical essay exposing lesser-known Netflix takes

The animatronic shark from Steven Spielberg's 'Jaws,' the first modern blockbuster, was a complex underwater apparatus called 'Bruce.'

For centuries, Niagara Falls has been a magnet for daredevils seeking to conquer one of nature's most powerful wonders, with its 200-foot drop and water rushing at 32 feet per second with 280 tons of force.

An initial public offering or 'IPO' is the process of a private company becoming public by putting shares of the company on the stock market for purchase.

Corals are themselves not coral reefs—the term refers to the tiny marine invertebrates that build the rigid reef.

The most expensive ad of all time was for Chanel No. 5 perfume and cost roughly $33M to produce in 2004—about $57M in today's dollars.

The Brothers Grimm were lawyers before they were storytellers, and became interested in fairy tales as they began investigating how rules and customs had been passed down through cultures.

The first steps to rebuilding your credit score include getting to know exactly what's on your credit report and figuring out how far you are from the '700 club,' or 'good score' range.

Trace how the Bill of Rights, inspired by centuries of political theory, took shape between 1774 and 1789.