Phantom limb pain may often match the pain or contortion of the injury that led to the limb loss.

Learn how a doctor successfully treated a patient's phantom limb pain with a mirror, tricking his brain into thinking his still-present arm was the missing paralyzed left one.

Research suggests the brain maintains connections to lost limbs

Decades-old research suggested brain reorganization after amputations, but brain scans show unchanged limb representations. Phantom limb pain may result from such unchanged brain maps, which may enhance prosthetic limb control in brain-computer interface technology.

Non-amputees can be tricked into thinking they have phantom limbs with rubber arm experiments.

Recent research found that the brain doesn't seem to massively rewire following amputation—upending earlier beliefs about the cause of phantom limb pain.

Hear about life as an amputee and how mirror box therapy helped.

Palliative care physician BJ Miller describes his phantom limb pain and itching after losing both legs and half an arm in an accident. Mirror box therapy eventually helped him, alongside physical therapy. This podcast also features neuroscientist V.S. Ramachandran who explains how he developed mirror box therapy in the 1990s.

Phantom limbs aren't just limited to limbs—there are phantom breasts, teeth, and more, and these sensations are often painful.

The concept of phantom limbs, the perception that amputated limbs are still present, dates back to a French military surgeon in the 16th century.

The concept of phantom limbs, the perception that amputated limbs are still present, dates back to a French military surgeon in the 16th century.

Mind-controlled bionic arms use nerve implants to restore sensation and movement

Unlike traditional prosthetics that rely on surface electrodes or mechanical parts, this system uses implanted titanium and nerve-connected electrodes to enable a seamless brain-to-arm connection. Patients train in virtual reality with their implanted signals before using the physical prosthesis.

Read the 1866 story that put phantom limbs on the map.

Brain-reading devices are helping paralyzed people to touch

In clinical trials, implanted brain-computer interfaces are allowing dozens of individuals with paralysis to control prosthetics that are restoring a range of skills, including drinking coffee and feeding oneself. One area of related prosthetic research is creating a synthetic sense of touch—coupling the brain implant with pressure sensors in prosthetic robotic fingertips to enable an approximation of a sense of touch.

Readers thought the fictional Civil War vet George Dedlow, a character suffering from phantom limb pain in an 1866 story in The Atlantic, was real—and sent donations and stopped by the hospital to meet him.

Using brain implants to restore vision

Several companies are attempting to create brain-computer interfaces that skip over retinas and optic nerves to allow visual input to go straight to the brain, potentially restoring some sight to the blind. Clinical trial findings suggest restored sight is sparse and manifests differently than a sighted person might expect, appearing as specks of "light" clusters called phosphenes to help differentiate one's surroundings.

An essay exploring how living day-to-day with a brain implant helps restore a sense of identity

Companies like Neuralink are experimenting with volunteers who have lost control over their bodies. Many of the program's participants claim the most significant benefit from the tool is the ability to perform simple, mundane tasks, such as playing video games or shaking hands, rather than more obvious milestones like walking or eating. This essay explores what it's like, day to day, to use a brain implant.

See what analysis of one man's amputated leg, donated to The Bone Museum, tells us about his otherwise invisible pain.

Brain implants are restoring movement and communication in early human trials

Several companies developing brain-computer interfaces have begun testing on humans with promising results. These implants have helped reanimate paralyzed limbs and enable communication, though ethical concerns remain about data privacy.

After 25 people used virtual reality headsets to practice flying with virtual wings—flapping their arms—their visual cortex responded to the wings almost as if they were real arms, treating them as body parts.

Neuralink brain implants have enabled a paralyzed person to play video games

As one of twelve test subjects in Neuralink's PRIME study, Rob Greiner's implant translates his brain's activity into digital commands for the 'Battlefield 6' game. He can now also design 3D models and 3D-print objects using his thoughts.

Listen to an amputee describe what it was like in the aftermath of his partial foot amputation and how his chronic, extreme pain fueled his depression and his decision to attempt to alleviate the pain with the radical surgery.

Learn about the point of the physical and emotional experience of pain, which has three broad categories that help determine treatment approaches.

Listen to how bionic limbs are reshaping what it means to live as an amputee in this award-winning 2022 podcast series covering the stories of two amputees who struggled with shortcomings in prosthetic technology.

Researchers have investigated the benefits of extreme pain rituals, exploring how and why we engage in these events when humans generally naturally avoid pain and perceive it as a negative experience.

Stem cell therapies show promise in treating spinal injuries

Researchers have long hoped to use stem cells in regenerative medicine to help patients with spinal cord injuries restore sensation and movement. A 2024 clinical trial illustrates how stem cells derived from patients' fat tissue could help spur the creation of new cells in the spinal cord.

Interface device implanted into ALS patients restored some of their abilities

Most people with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, or Lou Gehrig's disease, require assistance with daily life due to loss of motor control. The electrode-coated, stent-like device used motor mapping data and machine learning to translate brain activity into actions.

Limb regeneration research may lead to treatments for arthritis

For scientists pursuing the cure for arthritis, the holy grail of discoveries lies in how to regrow healthy cartilage inside human joints. While this feat has so far resisted our best scientific attempts, there are plenty of other human tissues—such as the liver and fingertips—that will successfully regenerate.

Patient H.M. revealed that the hippocampus was responsible for memory formation

Henry Molaison became a landmark case in psychology after surgery removed large portions of his hippocampus, leaving him unable to form new memories. Upon his death, Molaison's brain was sliced into 2,401 sections and digitized for research.

Misfired motor signals may explain why many people with schizophrenia hear voices

Up to 80% of schizophrenia patients may have auditory hallucinations. Recent research concluded that this symptom may be from misfired motor signals that feed into each other, essentially failing to suppress certain sensory neural activities and that resulting overexcitment fuels hallucinations. The finding suggests that, one day, magnetic pulses might be used to stimulate specific nerves to better regulate the errant signals and reduce or stop hallucinations. (Some users may encounter a paywall.)

Researchers use the brain's ability to edit memories to explore memory deletion

Scientists have successfully implanted false memories in mice after studying how the editing process works in the brain. Beyond potentially deleting memories in those with PTSD, upcoming research may allow clinicians to forecast the onset of neurodegenerative diseases.

Losing a brain-computer interface can trigger lasting psychological distress

A clinical trial participant with severe epilepsy described becoming “one” with her implant after it gave her unprecedented control over her seizures. When the device was removed due to the company shutting down, she experienced deep emotional trauma and a sense of personal loss.

Using AI to restore speech 30 years after a stroke

Through a novel surgical procedure involving electrodes implanted in the brain, along with the help of artificial intelligence, a stroke patient is regaining her ability to speak. This technology converts her thoughts into speech through a digital avatar, allowing her to verbally express herself for the first time in decades.