Earthquakes of identical magnitudes are unlikely to cause equal damage

Visualize the power and frequency of earthquake magnitudes

About 150 medium earthquakes—magnitude 6.0—occur every year, resulting in moderate shaking and some property damage. While millions of earthquakes below category 2.0 occur yearly, fewer than one of category 9.0 or higher occurs on average.

Reported earthquake magnitudes change as more data refines initial estimates

Initial magnitudes are based on limited information, while final magnitudes account for factors like fault size, rupture duration, and seismic wave behavior. Larger earthquakes have the most complex seismic wave activity and often require the most time to finalize recorded magnitudes.

A magnitude 25 earthquake would release enough energy to destroy the sun

Since Richter and moment magnitude scales rank earthquake energies logarithmically, theoretical magnitude values can cover an enormous range with no upper or lower mathematical limit. A particle of dust drifting onto a table would have a magnitude of about -15.

Variations in rock types contribute to uncertainty in earthquake predictions

Different rock types can withstand different amounts of stress before breaking and melt at different temperatures within Earth’s interior, preventing uniform modeling. The planet’s uneven mass distribution also creates variations in gravitational force, complicating mantle movement.

Tectonic earthquakes are caused by interactions of tectonic plates at fault zones

At these locations, plates slide past one another, deforming rock through friction as energy builds like a stretched rubber band. Volcanic eruptions, the collapse of subterranean caverns, or underground nuclear explosions can also cause earthquakes.

The Richter scale was only intended to quantify Southern California earthquakes

The scale, designed to rate the energy of the largest seismic waves released by an earthquake, was calibrated to the region’s crust and mantle properties. Since the 1970s, seismologists have instead used the moment magnitude scale, which considers all waves of released energy.

Tsunamis are caused by sudden seafloor shifts displacing water

Earthquakes of magnitude 7.0 with hypocenters within 100 km of the seafloor can vertically shift large sections of the seafloor significantly. This seismic activity is more commonly found in subduction zones, where an oceanic plate sinks beneath a continental one.

Earthquake early warning systems do not predict earthquakes

Systems like ShakeAlert® use a network of hundreds of ground sensors to detect earthquakes moments after they begin. Since seismic waves travel about 5 km/s, individuals may be notified of earthquakes before they feel the seismic activity has reached them.

What makes the Earth shake?

Researchers are demystifying the science of earthquakes—from their origins deep within the Earth to the scales that measure their strength. This article, which was part of a series of weekly reports from Cornell University, serves as a guide to...

If, not when: An earthquake is destined to destroy the Pacific Northwest.

When the Cascadia fault line ruptures, it could be North America’s worst natural disaster in recorded history. Read a deep dive into the history of the region and the potential impact of the eventual seismic boom.

Should you get earthquake insurance?

Standard home insurance doesn’t typically cover earthquakes. Even if you don't live in a state that's known for its earthquakes like California, it might be worth considering—although it's worth noting that only 13% of California residents have earthquake insurance. Learn more about earthquake insurance in this article.

Why Turkey's earthquakes were so deadly

The death toll from February 2023 has reached the tens of thousands, making it one of the deadliest natural disasters of the century. The intense seismic activity combined with poor and unregulated construction in many areas to drive fatalities....

Boomerang earthquakes reverse direction and ripple back the way they came

Computer simulations show that rapid changes in friction along a fault where an earthquake has traveled for long distances can produce a smaller quake in the opposite direction. Data consistent with the phenomena has only been recorded a handful of times from 2011 to 2023.

Portugal's 1775 earthquake is considered Europe's first modern natural disaster

An 8.5-magnitude earthquake off the Portuguese coast nearly destroyed Lisbon, killing thousands, creating 16-foot-wide fissures in the city, and triggering a massive tsunami. Historians credit it with jump-starting the Enlightenment in the region, with many thinkers seeking natural explanations.

Why starquakes may explain various phenomena associated with neutron stars

Fast radio bursts—repeated millisecond-long pulses of enormous energy from neutron stars—are emitted with a timing that resembles the earthquakes and aftershocks seen on Earth when geological activity releases energy from within the planet. Although pulsars should gradually spin more slowly as they lose energy from emitting jets of radiation, sudden increases may result from interior matter moving during starquakes.

Research suggests a 95-kilometer-wide (59-mile-wide) asteroid impact could boil the Earth's oceans

Even a 1-kilometer-wide (0.62-mile-wide) asteroid can trigger earthquakes and tsunamis on impact with oceans. The overwhelming majority of asteroids that reach Earth are much smaller and burn up in the atmosphere before reaching the ground.

Small elevation differences drastically protect homes in hurricanes

The construction of seaside homes has long involved building residences on elevated stilts, but this feature adds costs—and some elevated homes still fail. Explore the engineering behind the ideal height of a hurricane-proof building.

The composition of magma affects the explosivity of volcanic eruptions

Silicate-rich magma contains extensive molecular chains that trap dissolved gases like water and carbon dioxide. These gases build pressure until they violently escape, creating explosive eruptions. Low-silica magmas produce gentler eruptions categorized as effusive.

How search and rescue teams remove survivors from rubble

At any time, large-scale seismic activity can devastate entire regions, often with little warning. Emergency responders, then, are perpetually on call. This is particularly critical in areas with poor infrastructure.

Disposal wells for fracking wastewater have been linked to spikes in seismic activity

A study of all such underground wells in the central and eastern US found that they were 1.5 times more likely to be associated with earthquakes than oil recovery wells. The link between fluid injection and earthquakes was strongest at disposal wells where fluid was injected quickly.

Aurora borealis and auroras australis do not always mirror one another

While the Earth's magnetic field is symmetric across the magnetic north and south poles in isolation, charged particles from the sun distort the field. If the angle of impact between the wave of particles and the Earth's field is such that the distortions are uneven, dissimilar geomagnetic storms and resulting auroras are produced in the northern and southern hemispheres.

In a tornado outbreak, a single severe weather system can spawn multiple twisters

By maintaining the ingredients for tornadoes—differences in wind speed and direction across altitudes, moisture, and rising air—for long periods of time as it moves across a region, a severe thunderstorm can continuously produce tornadoes by lifting multiple columns of horizontally rotating air.

Flood recurrence intervals are based on independent probabilities

The term "100-year flood" does not mean the event will only occur once every 100 years, but it has a 1% chance of occurring in any given year. Soil saturation, watershed size, and urban development can impact flood severity.

Being near a lightning strike—even without getting struck—can be fatal

Because animal tissue is generally more conductive than soil, electricity moving along Earth's surface after a strike tends to travel up and back down an animal's legs, discharging dangerous amounts of energy along the way, with risks increasing the farther apart the legs are. This ground current accounts for about half of all lightning-related deaths and injuries in humans.

The deadliest aspect of volcanic eruptions is often not lava, but pyroclastic flows—avalanches of ash, gas, and rock that can move more than half the speed of sound.

Breaking down the health effects of the El Niño-Southern Oscillation

Second only to the seasons, ENSO is the most significant source of variability in global climate, shifting rainfall and temperature patterns, particularly in Africa, Latin America, and South and Southeast Asia. The incidence of vector-borne diseases like malaria, respiratory diseases related to wildfire smoke, food insecurity, and drought-related health and nutritional impacts has been observed to be affected by ENSO.

Some renewable energy sources may weaken the resiliency of electric grids by removing outage buffers provided by coal- and natural gas-fired plants, which provide the system with more time to find a new power source if a plant goes down.

Hurricanes, which rely on air consistently spinning in the same direction, cannot cross the equator because air curves in opposite directions north and south of it.

Firework or sparkler burns, even if they cover a relatively small area of skin, can significantly affect our range of motion.

Stars appear to twinkle because turbulence in the motion of molecules in Earth's atmosphere causes light to bend and wiggle rapidly on its way to the surface—a phenomenon called scintillation.

Explore chaos in this simulation of two double pendulums, where small differences in the release angles produce wildly different outcomes.

While El Niño moves warm Pacific Ocean waters east along the equator, La Niña moves them west, shifting where rainfall will become more common for months.

View the ten deadliest tornadoes in US history.

Radioactive elements can introduce software errors because the ionizing radiation they produce can detach electrons from atoms, and computer code relies on the distribution of electrons.

Waves off the coast of Nazaré, Portugal, can reach over 100 feet and are caused by the area's deep underwater canyon geography

How fusion—which releases energy when two lighter atoms combine to form a heavier atom—differs from fission

The boiling temperature of water decreases with increasing elevation because the molecules need less energy to overcome the lower atmospheric pressure associated with thinner air.

Pure water does not conduct electricity because this flow of energy requires the movement of charged particles, and water is a neutral molecule.

A pickleball's loud 'pop' sound can reach 120 decibels, which is equivalent to a hammer hitting a nail

Massive 3D printers have been used to build homes by stacking layers of 'concrete toothpaste,' a fire-resistant material that effectively insulates against outside noise.

Ebola infects and disables immune cells, triggering a cascade of events that leads to small blood clots throughout the body, weakening blood vessels and interrupting blood flow to key organs.

Larger animals like giraffes, elephants, and blue whales have developed a unique defense against cancer, a phenomenon known as Peto's Paradox

Gerrymandering works through two techniques: cracking opposing voters across districts to dilute their power, and packing them into a few to waste their votes in lopsided majorities.

Corals are themselves not coral reefs—the term refers to the tiny marine invertebrates that build the rigid reef.

Most of the observable universe's volume consists of voids and supervoids—enormous regions of space with little to no galaxies, stars, or light.

Studies suggest when you sleep is as important as how much you get, and syncing with your circadian rhythms may lead to less fatigue and improved long-term health outcomes

The American Society of Civil Engineers' infrastructure report card gave the US a C in 2025, its highest grade since the project launched in 1998.

Explore an interactive map built from more than 100,000 survey responses on where people find joy in their lives

The Nasdaq's 'Magnificent 7' companies are responsible for roughly 40% of the Nasdaq 100 index's gains, while the remaining 93 companies account for the other 60%.

The Russia-Ukraine conflict is the largest ground war in Europe since World War II in terms of casualties, forces mobilized, and displacement of civilians.