A look at the giants of quantum mechanics

Discoveries in electromagnetism became the catalyst for overturning Isaac Newton

To maintain the consistency of experimental results involving electricity, magnetism, and light, time and space had to cease being absolute and could change in value to keep the speed of light constant. This cosmic speed limit forced Einstein to revise the existing model of gravity.

View the evolution of atomic models, with four successively overturned between 1900 and 1926

Originally thought to be indivisible spheres unique to each element, the discovery of the electron by J.J. Thomson revealed them to be made of smaller particles. Ernest Rutherford's gold foil experiment uncovered the existence of nuclei, which Niels Bohr suggested were surrounded by electrons in fixed orbits. By applying quantum mechanics, Erwin Schrödinger replaced orbits with probability clouds.

During his 'miraculous year,' Einstein published four groundbreaking papers

The 1905 "annus mirabilis" papers explained the photoelectric effect, Brownian motion, the absolutism of the speed of light, and mass-energy equivalence, revolutionizing scientists' understandings of space, time, mass, and energy. For the discovery of the photoelectric effect, Einstein won the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics.

One of Einstein's papers challenged quantum theory but helped confirm entanglement

In 1935, Einstein suggested that quantum mechanics was incomplete due to its strange implications about entangled particles. Their challenge led to decades of experiments that eventually proved distant particles could affect each other instantly.

Quantum physics explained in 22 minutes

Brian Cox, Royal Society Professor for Public Engagement in Science, discusses the fundamental principles of quantum mechanics, emphasizing their importance in understanding the nature of reality and their practical applications in emerging technologies like quantum computers.

The interaction of quantum fields with black hole curvatures makes Hawking radiation

The classic explanation of Hawking radiation depicts virtual photons emitted from a black hole's event horizon. A more accurate explanation involves null geodesics, Bogoliubov transformations, and scattered quantum field nodes to explain the emission of thermal radiation.

Despite his disability, Stephen Hawking reshaped our understanding of black holes

His theoretical work—especially on black holes emitting radiation, now known as Hawking radiation—challenged long-held ideas. He also brought complex physics to the public through bestselling books like "A Brief History of Time."

Albert Einstein's equations predicted black holes decades before their discovery

For nearly 50 years, scientists dismissed black holes as implausible oddities, despite solutions to the equations indicating their existence. But the 1970s discovery of intense X-rays from Cygnus X-1 and its massive hidden companion flipped the consensus.

Photons are both particles of light and messengers of the electromagnetic force

Einstein's model of light as a wave and a massless particle of energy revolutionized physics, and scientists' application of the model led to groundbreaking technologies, including medical imaging and treatments, telecommunication signals, and probes of the quantum and cosmological realms.

Black-body radiation is emitted by everything in predictable ways

All objects above absolute zero emit electromagnetic radiation, with the amount and distribution determined by temperature alone. The shape and intensity of this radiation follow Planck's law, while Wien's law governs the peak wavelength.

Quantum field theory reveals that particles are ripples in universal fields

Instead of being made of indivisible particles, all visible matter in the universe is built from underlying quantum fields—smooth, invisible entities that behave like waves. The theory suggests these fields are fundamental, and particles are disturbances that move through them.

The Planck time is the smallest unit of time that could ever be theoretically measured

Equal to about 5.39 × 10⁻⁴³ seconds, the unit is derived from calculating how long it would take light to travel the Planck length—the smallest theoretically measurable length. Quantum physics allows events to occur on smaller timescales, making them undetectable and their order to lose meaning.

Meet the the scientists of the Manhattan Project

This resource profiles the scientists behind the Manhattan Project—from Nobel laureates like Fermi and Bethe to controversial figures like Teller and Fuchs—showing how their ideas, rivalries, and choices shaped the development of the atomic age.

Italian physicist Enrico Fermi (1901–1954) on the Standard Model

"If I could remember the name of all these particles, I'd be a botanist."

Some founders of quantum mechanics thought consciousness could influence phenomena

Since quantum systems exist as a superposition of states before producing a definitive outcome, some quantum pioneers wondered if the act of conscious observation was what collapsed the wave function of possibilities into one state.

The ultraviolet catastrophe is the infinite energy prediction of classical physics

When scientists first tried calculating the radiation emitted by a heated object, their assumption was that energy was equally distributed across wavelengths and produced infinite energy at low wavelengths. This contradicted observations, which showed near-zero energy intensity at those values.

Understanding how gravity works at the quantum scale is physics's greatest challenge

While the theory of general relativity explains how gravity works and quantum mechanics explains interactions at the subatomic scale, the two frameworks contradict one another. Developing a model of gravity mediated by particles can help complete the Standard Model.

Quantum field theory overestimated the value of dark energy by 120 orders of magnitude

Physicists in the 1960s used their most successful theory to determine whether the accelerated expansion of the universe arises from quantum fluctuations in empty space. However, the mismatch between vacuum energy density and dark energy was so severe that it has been referred to as "the worst theoretical prediction in the history of physics."

A Belgian Catholic priest was the first to come up with the idea for the Big Bang

In 1931, Georges Lemaître presented his radical idea that the universe came from a “primeval atom,” challenging the long-held belief that the universe had always existed. Einstein initially dismissed Lemaître’s work as having “abominable” physical insight, only to accept it later.

How Robert Oppenheimer determined when neutron stars become black holes

Building on the work of Richard Tolman and George Volkoff, Oppenheimer reasoned that, once massive enough, a hypothetical, star-sized atomic nucleus would be unable to stave off gravitational collapse with neutron degeneracy—quantum pressure—alone. The mathematical model estimated the maximum mass of a non-rotating neutron star, known as the Tolman-Oppenheimer-Volkoff limit.

Polish chemist and physicist Marie Curie (1867–1934) on learning

“Nothing in life is to be feared; it is only to be understood. Now is the time to understand more, so that we may fear less."

Efforts to find Majorana particles may finally lead to reliable quantum computers

Though the particle—which is its own antiparticle—remains theoretical, scientists from Microsoft to Google continue developing systems to mimic this property towards building error-resistant quantum computers. Scientists at UCSB have been attempting to get the particle using just pencil lead and Scotch tape.

View the winners of the 2025 Global Physics Photowalk contest

Participants were asked to submit entries showcasing particle physics labs from around the world, including particle accelerators, neutrino detectors, and superconducting experiments. The winning photograph was taken at the CryOgenic Laboratory for Detectors, where scientists hunt for dark matter after cooling materials to a few thousandths of a degree above absolute zero.

Validation of the greenhouse effect may have been misattributed

Although Irish physicist John Tyndall showed in 1859 that water vapor and carbon dioxide could absorb and radiate infrared radiation, experiments by American scientist Eunice Foote three years earlier identified the same phenomenon for light in general. Historically overshadowed, her work was rediscovered by female historians over a century later.

Ten underrated astronomy studies from 2022

The James Webb Space Telescope understandably received a lot of coverage in 2022. This astrophysicist wants to highlight ten major studies published last year you might have missed.

As of 2025, the most cited papers in science include a review of graphene, methods to improve image recognition, streamlining electron density calculations, and optimizing protein studies.

While atoms are normally made of protons, neutrons, and electrons, exotic ones have been built with antimatter—alternate versions of normal matter that live for fractions of a second and are about a billion times as rare.

Neutron stars, the remains of some massive stars after they explode in a supernova, are the densest directly observable objects in the universe.

After NASA's Voyager 1 captured Earth as a single pixel as it left the solar system in 1990, astronomer Carl Sagan used the image to reflect on humanity's fragility and the responsibility to protect 'the only world we've ever known.'

The first image of a black hole was captured by creating an Earth-sized virtual observatory from a network of eight radio telescopes.

Against his wishes, Albert Einstein's brain was removed before his cremation, and the pathologist responsible stored it for decades in mason jars within a beer cooler.

See the most iconic photos from four decades of LIFE magazine

Stars appear to twinkle because turbulence in the motion of molecules in Earth's atmosphere causes light to bend and wiggle rapidly on its way to the surface—a phenomenon called scintillation.

Quincy Jones' 'Big Band Bossa Nova' helped introduce bossa nova—a jazz-influenced Brazilian genre—to the US

Watch a 1934 short film starring jazz legend Cab Calloway, a major figure in the Harlem Renaissance's music scene

Clever Hans was a 1900s horse that was believed to be able to solve math equations, tell time, and read and comprehend German, until a psychology student discovered how he got his answers.

The first horror movie is believed to be George Méliès' 1986 short 'The Haunted Castle,' which pioneered the use of special effects

Learn more about the history of fireworks, which dates back to an accidental invention during an alchemist's quest for information about immortality.

American dance legend Martha Graham, sometimes called 'the Picasso of dance,' refused to perform at the 1936 Olympics in Berlin and conceived the piece 'Chronicle' in response to the experience.

Larger animals like giraffes, elephants, and blue whales have developed a unique defense against cancer, a phenomenon known as Peto's Paradox

Explore chaos in this simulation of two double pendulums, where small differences in the release angles produce wildly different outcomes.

Warren Buffett's former professor Benjamin Graham is known as the 'father of value investing,' a strategy in which investors seek to buy stocks trading below their intrinsic worth.

The name 'Silicon Valley' arose from the founding of Shockley Semiconductor Laboratory in Fairchild Semiconductor in 1956-57, founded near Stanford University in Palo Alto

Existentialist writer Jean-Paul Sartre coined the famous phrase 'Hell is—other people' in his play 'No Exit'

Listen to an in-depth conversation on the links between Parkinson's disease and herbicide exposure and the challenging pace of scientific investigation.

In 1984, Operation Smash Hit intentionally crashed a 239-ton train into a nuclear waste canister at 100 miles per hour to prove the canister's safety, which remained completely intact and lost just 0.29 of its 100 pounds of pressure.

Explore a list of the 100 best novels of all time, compiled by some of the world's best living writers, including Salman Rushdie, Stephen King, and Jennifer Egan.

Discover the catastrophic consequences of a failure of the US electrical grid—something that is more likely than many Americans think.

The idea for the Federal Reserve was conceived in secret in 1910—with bankers donning duck hunt gear for disguise while traveling to a remote country club on Georgia's Jekyll Island

Volcanic activity may have triggered the Black Death by spewing gases that led to crop failures in Europe, thus forcing the import of grain ships with plague-infested fleas.