Quantum field theory reveals that particles are ripples in universal fields

Quantum field theory, which has made predictions accurate to 12 decimal places, explained

Instead of being made of indivisible particles, all visible matter in the universe is built from underlying quantum fields—smooth, invisible entities that behave like waves and extend throughout space and time. The theory suggests these fields are fundamental, and particles are disturbances that move through them.

Quantum mechanics explains how particles behave like both matter and waves

In the quantum world, particles such as electrons are “quantized,” meaning they can only hold specific values of energy or momentum. These particles also behave like waves, with their wave function predicting where they might be found at any moment as probability clouds called orbitals.

The Standard Model reveals an underlying organization to the universe

Using the framework of quantum field theory, it structures all known particles into 12 matter particles, alongside five particles that carry three of the four fundamental forces. Although remarkably precise and predictive, it cannot yet explain gravity, dark matter, or dark energy.

Quantum tunneling allows particles to pass through classically impenetrable barriers

First described in 1928, the phenomenon is the result of probability waves, which represent the location of particles in space as extended objects. Just as sound waves can reflect off of and pass through barriers, these probability waves dictate that solid matter has a chance at passing through obstacles.

Emergent quantum phenomena can produce nonfundamental quasiparticles

While physicists have discovered new particles by colliding known ones at high speeds, placing known particles in extreme environments or configurations can allow quantum mechanics to produce bizarre behaviors, making them seem like new types of matter.

Quantum mechanical principles are responsible for chemical properties

Besides quantization, the wave-particle duality, and probabilistic features, quantum theory's mathematics introduces the exclusion principle, quantum tunneling, quantum entanglement, and other phenomena foreign to our everyday experiences. Some suggest that all possibilities for a quantum system may also occur across the multiverse.

The Higgs boson provides a mechanism that explains why some particles have mass

The mathematics of quantum field theory suggested that force particles should be massless, like the photon for electromagnetism, but the weak nuclear force’s equivalent W and Z particles are not. The Higgs field provides mass when interacting with such particles.

The universe might have emerged from a quantum fluctuation—not absolute nothing

Traditional physics breaks down at the moment of the Big Bang, but quantum theory suggests that “empty” space is never truly empty. In 1973, physicist Edward Tryon proposed that our universe began from a quantum energy blip in the quantum vacuum.

How string theory explains gravity on the quantum scale, but may be untestable

Combining the general theory of relativity with quantum field theory creates nonsensical mathematical outcomes, such as probabilities of infinity. These are resolved by treating particles as vibrating strings rather than points of matter. However, probing the scale of these strings to validate the theory requires technology equivalent to a particle accelerator the size of the solar system.

Wave-particle duality—a simple overview

Our notion of reality is built on everyday experiences. But wave-particle duality is so strange that we are forced to re-examine our common conceptions. Wave-particle duality refers to the fundamental…

Within quantum physics, the order of events across time may not follow causality

Although time is considered a fixed, ordered mapping of events, where the past affects the future, quantum superposition breaks down causality, suggesting that future events can occur simultaneously with past ones. Within the quantum model, the notion of cause and effect is not a fundamental feature of our universe.

String theory replaces black hole singularities with fuzzballs of tangled strings

Black holes contain singularities where information about the material that fell in is lost, violating quantum mechanics. Instead, modeled as a bundle of strings, information is stored and slowly released as the black hole evaporates.

Smaller than atoms—what are quarks?

One of humanity’s eternal questions surrounds what we are fundamentally made of. Many ancient philosophies believed in a set of classical elements: from water, air, fire and earth of ancient Greeks; to…

Time disappears when encompassing all quantum configurations across the universe

The Wheeler-DeWitt equation, a modified version of the Schödinger equation—the formula that describes the evolution of the quantum configuration of a system—describes the quantum state of space-time across the universe. The transformation causes the variable of time to disappear, suggesting it is not a fundamental, physical parameter of the cosmos.

Quantum computers can simulate nature more effectively than classical computers

Ordinary computers struggle to simulate quantum fields due to entanglement, but systems built from those elements can model the complexity. Systems using particle in more than two states—qudits—have successfully modeled 2D electromagnetic fields and done so more efficiently.

View the evolution of atomic models, with four successively overturned between 1900 and 1926

Originally thought to be indivisible spheres unique to each element, the discovery of the electron by J.J. Thomson revealed them to be made of smaller particles. Ernest Rutherford's gold foil experiment uncovered the existence of nuclei, which Niels Bohr suggested were surrounded by electrons in fixed orbits. By applying quantum mechanics, Erwin Schrödinger replaced orbits with probability clouds.

View an infographic of the Standard Model

Much like this visualization, the theory serves to catalog almost all phenomena involving visible matter comprehensively, including organizing observed elementary particles by shared characteristics and explaining most fundamental forces and quantum properties.

Light has been modeled as a wave and a stream of particles throughout history

Isaac Newton first identified white light as composed of a spectrum of colors, which he believed consisted of particles of different hues. Various light phenomena, including refraction, led Christiaan Huygens to develop an alternative wave model. Quantum mechanics validated both models through the concept of wave-particle duality.

One of Einstein's papers challenged quantum theory but helped confirm entanglement

In 1935, Einstein suggested that quantum mechanics was incomplete due to its strange implications about entangled particles. Their challenge led to decades of experiments that eventually proved distant particles could affect each other instantly.

The trajectory of particles in bubble chambers reveals their properties

The presence of magnetic fields produces spiraling paths in charged particles as they move across the field, with faster and more massive particles moving in wider turns. Gaps in the trails indicate the presence of short-lived particles that are undetectable until they decay.

The theory of axiogenesis may explain the matter-antimatter asymmetry in our universe

Axiogenesis suggests that a theoretical particle field that evolved after the Big Bang may have spun like a marble around a wobbly “Mexican hat” energy landscape, producing excess matter over antimatter. This theoretical particle—the axion—may also make up dark matter, solving an additional mystery in astronomy.

What is gravity made of?

Our world at very small scales is governed by quantum mechanics, in which forces and energy come in discrete packets. At large scales, our world is governed by gravity, which moves the planets and stars and can create waves in spacetime. To merge...

Four video explainers on quantum fundamentals

Ready to level up your working knowledge of quantum mechanics? Check out these four TED-Ed Lessons written by Chad Orzel, associate professor in the Department of Physics and Astronomy at Union College

Explore a simulation of ideal gas behavior, which can be explained by kinetic molecular theory

The theory describes particles as moving in random directions, with a distribution of velocities determined by the gas's temperature. The particles collide elastically like billiard balls, are negligibly small, and do not exert forces on one another. The gas laws can be derived from these principles using statistics or observed via this interactive.

While atoms are normally made of protons, neutrons, and electrons, exotic ones have been built with antimatter—alternate versions of normal matter that live for fractions of a second and are about a billion times as rare.

Mathematics proves turbulence's chaos creates super diffusion

Turbulent flow is responsible for the rapid scattering of dandelion seeds, volcanic ash, and untied balloons. Its swirling behavior accelerates particle scattering faster than other mixing methods, as particles acquire energy from the interactions of eddies.

According to the physics of black holes, our 4D reality may be a hologram—a projection of information coded on a 2D surface on the edge of the universe.

Most of the observable universe's volume consists of voids and supervoids—enormous regions of space with little to no galaxies, stars, or light.

Chaos theory—informally known as the butterfly effect—is the reason why weather forecasts are presented with probabilities rather than certainties.

Stars appear to twinkle because turbulence in the motion of molecules in Earth's atmosphere causes light to bend and wiggle rapidly on its way to the surface—a phenomenon called scintillation.

All rainbows are 'raincircles' caused by water droplets separating white sunlight into a spectrum of colors, but Earth's surface blocks the bottom half of the circle from our line of sight.

Pure water does not conduct electricity because this flow of energy requires the movement of charged particles, and water is a neutral molecule.

Fireworks make a loud booming sound after exploding due to air expanding faster than the speed of sound.

As of 2025, the most cited papers in science include a review of graphene, methods to improve image recognition, streamlining electron density calculations, and optimizing protein studies.

An investigation suggests a Scottish island became awash in forever chemicals via seafoam and seaspray—raising questions about what that means for the safety of other coastal areas.

Ebola is a filovirus, meaning it resembles a thread under a microscope, though it sometimes twists and can resemble a bowl of spaghetti.

After NASA's Voyager 1 captured Earth as a single pixel as it left the solar system in 1990, astronomer Carl Sagan used the image to reflect on humanity's fragility and the responsibility to protect 'the only world we've ever known.'

How Amazon operates a 'flywheel' business model, a self-reinforcing cycle that drives continuous growth

The idea for the Federal Reserve was conceived in secret in 1910—with bankers donning duck hunt gear for disguise while traveling to a remote country club on Georgia's Jekyll Island

Recent research found that the brain doesn't seem to massively rewire following amputation—upending earlier beliefs about the cause of phantom limb pain.

Warren Buffett's former professor Benjamin Graham is known as the 'father of value investing,' a strategy in which investors seek to buy stocks trading below their intrinsic worth.

The first horror movie is believed to be George Méliès' 1986 short 'The Haunted Castle,' which pioneered the use of special effects

Larger animals like giraffes, elephants, and blue whales have developed a unique defense against cancer, a phenomenon known as Peto's Paradox

While the first exchange-traded fund (a 'basket' of different assets that can be bought and sold on a stock exchange) in the US only launched in 1993, the global ETF market has grown to more than $10T in the short time since.

SpongeBob exemplifies Aristotle's philosophy for living well because he understands that happiness doesn't come from external factors like money, recognition, or power.

Quincy Jones' 'Big Band Bossa Nova' helped introduce bossa nova—a jazz-influenced Brazilian genre—to the US

Georgia O'Keeffe's flower paintings are often assumed to be sexual, though the artist claimed she was simply interested in highlighting the beauty of flowers that most people neglect

Corals are themselves not coral reefs—the term refers to the tiny marine invertebrates that build the rigid reef.

The price of gas is a composite made up of several different factors, with the federal gas tax making up less than 20% of what drivers pay at the pump.

Iran's Revolutionary Guard Corps is independent of Iran's regular army and is one of the most powerful and influential military-political organizations in the Middle East.