James Madison wrote the first draft of the Bill of Rights

The Bill of Rights was shaped by hundreds of drafts

This interactive resource from the National Constitution Center traces the complex drafting process behind the Bill of Rights, showing how state proposals and revisions evolved into the first 10 amendments.

Trace how the Bill of Rights, inspired by centuries of political theory, took shape between 1774 and 1789.

Madison initially opposed a bill of rights but embraced it for pragmatic reasons

James Madison initially argued that bills of rights were ineffective. However, a competitive House race against James Monroe and the need to win the support of anti-Federalists in ratifying the Constitution led him to support amendments in the First Congress.

The Bill of Rights originally proposed 12 amendments, not 10

Congress proposed 12 amendments in 1789, not 10. Of the two amendments not ratified, the one on congressional pay raises remained dormant for 203 years before finally becoming the 27th Amendment in 1992.

James Madison's original draft of the First Amendment was far more expansive than what was ratified

Madison's first proposed language guaranteed the right "to speak, to write, or to publish" one's sentiments freely—broader and more explicit than the final text—and described the free press as "one of the great bulwarks of liberty."

Virginia's Declaration of Rights was a main inspiration for Madison's Bill of Rights

James Madison drew on Virginia's Declaration of Rights, written in 1776. The document affirmed freedom of religion, freedom of the press, and jury trials, and placed limits on government power—core protections that later appeared in the Bill of Rights.

The Bill of Rights was not included in the original Constitution

The Constitution was ratified before a formal list of rights was added. To avoid reopening debates, the Founders approved the core document first, then adopted the Bill of Rights as amendments. Watch this video to find out why, and how, that happened.

The Bill of Rights was designed to protect individuals from the power of the federal government

When the Bill of Rights was ratified in 1791, its protections applied only to the federal government. It wasn't until the 14th Amendment (1868) and the Supreme Court's doctrine of selective incorporation that most provisions were extended to state governments—a process that began in 1925.

3 states did not officially ratify the Bill of Rights until 1939

Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Georgia originally rejected or tabled the amendments in 1791. With Virginia's ratification already clearing the three-fourths threshold of adoption, there was no legal pressure to revisit it—until all three states acted symbolically on the 150th anniversary of Congressional approval of the amendments.

Alexander Hamilton played a significant role in creating the American system of government

From 1787 to 1788, Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay anonymously published a collection of essays known as the Federalist Papers to promote the new Constitution. Of the 85 essays that proved pivotal to the eventual ratification of the document, Hamilton wrote 51.

The 1787 Constitutional Convention was initially called to amend the Articles of Confederation

Delegates initially met in 1787 to amend the Articles of Confederation, but within weeks chose to redesign the government entirely. Months of intense debate over power and representation produced the compromises that shaped the Constitution.

Bill of Rights Day is commemorated annually in the United States on Dec. 15

The date marks the 1791 ratification of the first 10 amendments. President Franklin D. Roosevelt officially established Bill of Rights Day in 1941, on the document's 150th anniversary. Hear the speech he gave on that day.

Madison's Virginia Plan proposed a strong national government with population-based representation

Crafted by Madison and introduced at the opening of the Constitutional Convention of 1787, the Virginia Plan outlined a three-branch federal government and a bicameral legislature. This plan shaped the structure and direction of the debates that led to the creation of the US Constitution.

Madison and Jefferson forged a political alliance that shaped the early US republic

Beginning in the 1780s, James Madison and Thomas Jefferson collaborated closely to oppose centralized power, to found the Democratic-Republican Party, and to guide the nation's early debates on constitutional and foreign policy.

Madison's meticulous notes of the Constitutional Convention are the most thorough record of the event

During the Constitutional Convention, James Madison took detailed daily notes of the debates, speeches, and votes. His Notes on the Debates in the Federal Convention is the most comprehensive and authoritative account of the convention, shaping historians' understanding of the Constitution's origins.

See how the Declaration evolved from draft to final text

John Adams urged Congress to choose Thomas Jefferson to draft the Declaration because of his literary skill and low-profile reputation. Read Jefferson’s initial draft, which included passages later removed, including a forceful denunciation of slavery.

At the 1787 Constitutional Convention, Madison changed the draft language from Congress's power to "make" war to "declare" war

The change was deliberate: "make" war seemed to leave the president unable to defend the country against sudden attack, while "declare" preserved that defensive authority. The distinction between starting a war and responding to one has been debated ever since.

The US Constitution has been amended 27 different times since its ratification

Dive deeper into each amendment to the Constitution with resources provided by the National Constitution Center. This website features podcasts, videos, and other web resources for each of the amendments, examining their creation and their impact on today’s political and social landscape.

The Tariff Act of 1789 was one of America's first acts

One of the first acts ever passed by the United States Congress instituted tariffs on foreign goods. The bill was sponsored by then-Congressman James Madison and signed into law by President George Washington. The goods the first Congress felt necessary to tax included Jamaican rum, playing cards, and—of course—British tea.

10 of the original 14 copies of the Bill of Rights still exist

Clerks produced 13 copies for the states, plus one federal copy. Today, eight states still hold theirs. Georgia's and New York's were likely burned, Pennsylvania's was stolen, and Maryland's whereabouts remain unknown.

Voting rights expanded from 6% of Americans in 1789 to nearly all adult citizens today

In the first US election, only white male property owners—about 6% of the population—could vote. Constitutional amendments culminating in the 26th Amendment gradually expanded voting rights to nearly all citizens aged 18 and older.

The US Constitution is widely regarded as the longest-standing written national constitution still in force—see how it has influenced rights worldwide.

Amending the Constitution requires broad support

The framers created a demanding amendment process. Proposed changes require two-thirds approval in both houses of Congress and ratification by three-fourths of the state legislatures, making sure that constitutional amendments reflect a broad national consensus rather than temporary political majorities.

Explore the nearly 1,000 laws, regulations, and provisions the court has held unconstitutional since Marbury v. Madison

Over more than two centuries, the Supreme Court has struck down nearly 1,000 federal, state, and local measures—exercising its authority to invalidate laws that conflict with the Constitution and shaping civil rights, the separation of powers, and the scope of government authority.

The Reconstruction Amendments aimed to rebuild the nation and secure freedom after slavery

Ratified between 1865 and 1870 after the conclusion of the war, the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments abolished slavery, guaranteed citizenship and equal protection, and extended voting rights to Black men—transforming the Constitution's definition of liberty and equality.

Madison's portrait was on the now-defunct $5,000 bill

James Madison appeared on the $5,000 bill, a high-denomination note used primarily for bank-to-bank transactions that was discontinued in 1969 as electronic payments reduced the need for large paper currency. (The rare note is still legal tender, though it is often worth much more than its face value to collectors.)

Meet the 56 signers of the Declaration of Independence—most of whom didn't put pen to paper until August 2, 1776—and see their original signatures.

Explore the world's oldest constitutions

The 1789 US Constitution remains the oldest active written national constitution. Older systems exist—such as San Marino’s statutes or the Magna Carta—but they are not single, codified constitutions. See how other countries compare in this visualization.

The rivalry between Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson centered on federalism—the question of how much power the federal government should hold relative to the states.

Despite being favored by 87% of Americans, Congress does not have term limits.

Jimmy Carter signed a 1978 bill that legalized home brewing, a move credited with kick-starting the craft beer industry.

The idea for the Federal Reserve was conceived in secret in 1910—with bankers donning duck hunt gear for disguise while traveling to a remote country club on Georgia's Jekyll Island

Before the current East Wing ballroom project, only two White House renovations in the past 100 years cost more than $10M.

Many legends about George Washington, including his supposed wooden teeth and the story of cutting down the cherry tree, lack evidence.

After the Boston Tea Party, colonists switched to coffee, which became the main morning drink for revolutionaries.

The story of Dollree Mapp, whose legal challenge over her 1957 conviction for possessing "obscene material" led to a major strengthening of the Fourth Amendment

While the first exchange-traded fund (a 'basket' of different assets that can be bought and sold on a stock exchange) in the US only launched in 1993, the global ETF market has grown to more than $10T in the short time since.

'Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone,' a work by American painter Thomas Moran, inspired Congress to establish Yellowstone National Park.

Mark Twain spent decades feuding with the US Postal Service, convinced its costs and regulations were bureaucratic overreach.

See this overview of the firework rules across all 50 states, ranging from a complete ban on non-professional fireworks in Massachusetts to states with more lax rules like Indiana.

Long before Major League Baseball began allowing instant replay for balls and strikes, an umpire reluctantly used the technology to determine whether a hit was a home run, a move that inadvertently ushered in a new era for the sport.

The US first hosted the World Cup in 1994, a tournament that lives in soccer infamy for its poor planning and the murder of Colombian player Andres Escobar, who'd accidentally scored on his own net.

English mathematician Ada Lovelace wrote the first computer algorithm a century before computers existed and hypothesized that computing devices would one day be able to compose music—foreseeing the generative AI systems of today.

A researcher recently discovered an interview from 1967 between groundbreaking journalist Joan Didion and the Grateful Dead, years before the band became an institution.

A small portion of The Winstons' 'Amen, Brother,' an obscure '60s gospel record, is the basis for thousands of hip-hop tracks, making it one of the most sampled records ever that's informally known as 'the Amen break.'

The first steps to rebuilding your credit score include getting to know exactly what's on your credit report and figuring out how far you are from the '700 club,' or 'good score' range.

The Beatles' US label rejected the band's first two singles, 'Please Please Me' and 'From Me to You,' with one executive calling the band 'dead in the water.'

While atoms are normally made of protons, neutrons, and electrons, exotic ones have been built with antimatter—alternate versions of normal matter that live for fractions of a second and are about a billion times as rare.

Explore a list of the 100 best novels of all time, compiled by some of the world's best living writers, including Salman Rushdie, Stephen King, and Jennifer Egan.