Lava flow viscosity plays a significant role in the type of volcano formed

The deadliest aspect of volcanic eruptions is often not lava, but pyroclastic flows—avalanches of ash, gas, and rock that can move more than half the speed of sound.

The deadliest aspect of volcanic eruptions is often not lava, but pyroclastic flows—avalanches of ash, gas, and rock that can move more than half the speed of sound.

View a gallery of diagrams for each volcano type with glossaries

The three major types of volcanoes—cinder cone, composite, and shield—each exhibit unique, lesser-known subterranean and surface features, including lava bombs, lahars, and spatter. Other types of volcanoes include lava domes, calderas, fissure volcanoes, and Maars and tuff rings.

The composition of magma affects the explosivity of volcanic eruptions

Silicate-rich magma contains extensive molecular chains that trap dissolved gases like water and carbon dioxide. These gases build pressure until they violently escape, creating explosive eruptions. Low-silica magmas produce gentler eruptions categorized as effusive.

Volcanoes 'die' when their supply of magma runs out, if they are shifted away from their underlying magma reservoir, or if they get clogged by collapsing or their magma cooling back into rock.

Volcanoes 'die' when their supply of magma runs out, if they are shifted away from their underlying magma reservoir, or if they get clogged by collapsing or their magma cooling back into rock.

Cooling lava naturally creates hexagonal cracks to evenly relieve stress

When lava cools and turns into rock, it contracts and builds up tension, particularly when held in place by the surrounding landscape. Just as drying mud cracks, initial cracks in the rock are random, but quickly organize into a hexagonal pattern, which scientists consider the most space-efficient shape.

Extraterrestrial volcanoes spew material present during their formation

Unlike Earth's volcanoes that release lava, cryovolcanoes on distant moons erupt cold jets of water, ammonia, and other light gases present during the formation of their host planet. The movement of internal heat produced during formation is thought to drive icy plume movement.

Viscosity is a fluid's resistance to flow, which varies with temperature

Liquids become less viscous as temperature increases, while gases become more viscous and therefore flow more slowly. The increased gas collisions at higher temperatures contribute to greater friction between streamlines, increasing viscosity.

Eruption forecasting relies on probabilistic methods resembling weather forecasting

While some volcanoes erupt with predictable signs, such as surface deformation from the build-up of underground magma pressure, others release magma at inconsistent rates. Extensive monitoring is needed to identify less clear patterns and indicators of future eruptions.

Ancient sunken plates may influence mantle convection and surface motion

Research suggests sunken tectonic plates can collide, assemble, and break apart to form structures called large low-velocity provinces. LLVPs can significantly enrich rising magma plumes with elements commonly seen on Earth’s surface.

Dirty lightning is a thunderstorm created from friction between rising and falling flows of ash and smoke during volcanic eruptions.

A volcanic island north of Sicily is the world's longest continuously active volcano

Stromboli has been releasing lava for at least 2,000 years, with the earliest recorded eruption dating back to 350 BCE. Its mild but ongoing bursts of bright lava have earned it the nickname, "lighthouse of the Mediterranean."

Volcanic activity can lead to the formation of fertile soils

Ejected rock can introduce key minerals found in fertilizers, including iron, magnesium, and potassium, to improve soil quality. Ash and basalt crystals can be easily absorbed into soils, infusing them with sulfur, oxygen, chlorine, phosphorus, calcium, and other critical elements.

Supervolcanoes can eject enough material to fill one-fourth of the Grand Canyon

Although extremely rare, their released material can trigger winters by blocking the sun and cooling the Earth’s surface for years. The Toba supereruption 74,000 years ago disrupted food chains and reduced the human population to a few thousand.

Mid-ocean ridges are underwater volcano systems where tectonic plates diverge

New ocean crust is formed at these ridges as magma rises from Earth’s mantle and fills the space between the spreading plates. The speed of divergence influences ridge shape, with slow spreads forming rugged valleys and fast spreading creating smooth, wide slopes.

In 2009, accidentally drilling into magma provided time capsules of volcanic glass

While drilling for geothermal energy in Iceland's Krafla Geothermal Field, magma encountered at a depth of 2,100 meters quickly formed glass upon making contact with drilling fluid. By trapping dissolved gases, volatile chemicals, and the physical characteristics of magma before cooling, the glass acts as a time capsule of ancient volcanic activity and magmatic conditions.

Volcanologist survives 5 eruptions while living on Mount Vesuvius

As physicist Luigi Palmieri ducked around lava flowing down the slopes of Mount Vesuvius, he also solidified the field of volcanology. This article details his contribution to science through his dangerous ventures to the volcano that buried Pompeii...

Yellowstone National Park is situated atop an active supervolcano

Yellowstone showcases geothermal phenomena, including the famous Old Faithful geyser and the vibrant Grand Prismatic Spring. The park's unique geological and ecological features make it an exceptional destination for visitors from around the globe.

What happens if you throw trash into lava?

Each year, the world generates more than 2 billion tons of waste. Some have wondered: Could we dispose of it in lava? This video explores the science behind that idea, from lava lake temperatures to steam explosions and toxic emissions, and why the risks outweigh the benefits.

Avalanches happen when layered snow fails, often on perfect ski slopes

Snowpacks form unstable layers as weather shifts; a weak, refrozen layer buried under fresh snow can shear and release a slab avalanche on certain steep slopes. Triggers range from new snowfall to the movement of skiers, while survival depends on the presence of ski partners, beacons, and rescue teams.

An overview of Venus, from its retrograde rotation to its volcanic surface

Boasting over 1,600 major volcanoes—more than any other planet in the solar system—Venus rotates in the opposite direction as Earth, potentially due to a major collision during its formation that flipped the planet upside-down. The planet's rotation also makes days on Venus last longer than its entire year.

Layers of minerals revealed by erosion give Vinicunca its distinct colorations

Located in Peru's Andean mountains, Rainbow Mountain is known for its vibrant colors, which result from layers of minerals such as clay, sandstone, argillite, and limonite exposed over millions of years by rain, snowfall, and strong winds.

Geological features on Mars' surface provide evidence of massive past flooding

The presence of river valleys, enormous canyons, and other structures carved by water on Earth suggests that water flowed abundantly across Mars' surface. The layering of rocks in the walls of these structures indicates the intensity and volume of these flows.

The boiling temperature of water decreases with increasing elevation because the molecules need less energy to overcome the lower atmospheric pressure associated with thinner air.

Tropical cyclone formation require warm water and limited vertical wind shear

Ocean temperatures above 27 degrees Celsius fuel rising, moist air, which releases energy through heat as water vapor condenses into clouds. Significant changes in wind speed with height can spread out these upflows, preventing the eventual formation of a central column known as the eye.

Mathematics proves turbulence's chaos creates super diffusion

Turbulent flow is responsible for the rapid scattering of dandelion seeds, volcanic ash, and untied balloons. Its swirling behavior accelerates particle scattering faster than other mixing methods, as particles acquire energy from the interactions of eddies.

Unique species evolved independently on each Galápagos island

The islands formed over millions of years because of a hot spot in the Nazca Plate, where magma breaks through and forms volcanoes. As these islands drifted, plants and animals became secluded, making each island its own an isolated experiment that would influence Charles Darwin's theory of evolution.

Lightning bolts are about as thick as a garden hose

The conductive filament ranges from about 2.5 to 5.0 centimeters (1 to 2 inches), though its extreme brightness makes it appear much thicker and visible from miles away. Scars on individuals who suffer a direct strike produce Lichtenberg figures with similar maximum thickness.

Massive 3D printers have been used to build homes by stacking layers of 'concrete toothpaste,' a fire-resistant material that effectively insulates against outside noise.

Learn how your body is, scientifically, like a firework with its own slow, controlled burn.

Explore the archaeological treasures of Pompeii, the city buried under volcanic ash when Mount Vesuvius erupted in 79 CE.

Ebola is a filovirus, meaning it resembles a thread under a microscope, though it sometimes twists and can resemble a bowl of spaghetti.

Venture capital is a form of funding provided to early-stage companies with high growth potential, typically in exchange for an equity (or ownership) stake

Most of the observable universe's volume consists of voids and supervoids—enormous regions of space with little to no galaxies, stars, or light.

Waves off the coast of Nazaré, Portugal, can reach over 100 feet and are caused by the area's deep underwater canyon geography

Poison ivy will likely become both larger and more resilient due to climate change.

Scientists can determine Earth's past climate conditions by analyzing air trapped in microscopic bubbles within ice cores—columns of compressed snow layers that build up over hundreds of thousands of years.

'Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone,' a work by American painter Thomas Moran, inspired Congress to establish Yellowstone National Park.

While El Niño moves warm Pacific Ocean waters east along the equator, La Niña moves them west, shifting where rainfall will become more common for months.

The syncytiotrophoblast is the outer layer of the placenta and the largest human cell, spanning an area about twice that of a king-sized bedsheet.

Coral polyps reproduce via broadcast spawning, where entire reefs simultaneously release reproductive cells for about one hour, once a year.

Power lines are dotted with large, brightly colored balls to improve the visibility of these thin wires to helicopters and small planes and help prevent potential crashes.

Browse a detailed visual analysis of over 200,000 similes—comparisons that often use 'like' or 'as'—from popular fiction to see how frequently writers the same idiomatic expressions.

Sony set the standard for cylinder-shaped batteries when it repurposed manufacturing equipment used to make rolls of magnetic recording tape.

See photos of Meteora, a mountainous site in central Greece, home to 14th-century monasteries perched atop soaring outcroppings.

Gerrymandering works through two techniques: cracking opposing voters across districts to dilute their power, and packing them into a few to waste their votes in lopsided majorities.

Domino's Pizza's 30-minute delivery guarantee was responsible for the chain's 1980s surge, but it was discontinued after the company was found liable for delivery driver accidents.

Some coin denominations have ridges etched on their sides, partly to prevent counterfeiting, in a practice called 'reeding.'