While both butter and margarine are mixtures of tiny water droplets in a matrix of fat, butter's fatty acids are mostly saturated, while margarine's are primarily unsaturated, affecting how each melts.

Watch an animation of what happens inside cookies as they bake in an oven

As temperatures rise and butter melts, trapped water expands, spreading the dough, which remains held together by a network of proteins. Maillard reactions produce browning on the surface beyond 310 degrees Fahrenheit (154 degrees Celsius), while caramelization can be triggered by baking past 356 degrees Fahrenheit (180 degrees Celsius).

A collection of molecular gastronomy techniques, from flavored air to turning oils into powder

Soy lecithin can be blended with flavored mixtures, such as herbs and Parmesan, to produce edible bubbles, which can be frozen into a solid foam. Maltodextrin can be combined with liquid fats in a food processor to create light, flavorful powders.

Understanding the biochemistry of ingredients and taste can improve flavor and texture

Keeping eggs at room temperature produces smoother batters when baking, and doing the same with tomatoes helps prevent a mealy, granular mouthfeel. Salting meat a day before gives more time for proteins to break down, improving flavor and tenderness, while cooking vegetables in well-salted water can lock in nutrients and color.

From the surface, Mars can appear butterscotch, golden brown, and even green

Images from orbiters, landers, and rovers show that Mars has a mix of surface colors resulting from variations in the mineral compositions of different regions. The reddish tint when viewed from Earth comes from kicked up particles of rusted iron.

Microbes are essential to creating the many varieties of cheese, influencing texture and taste

Microbes break down proteins and fats and produce compounds with distinct tastes. These microbes can include bacteria (like the one used to give Swiss its trademark holes), molds (like the ones that give blue cheese its distinctive veining), and countless other tiny organisms.

Discover the chemistry behind smoking foods, including the types of smoking and the source of smoking flavors and colors.

Jam and jelly differ in texture because of how fruit is processed

Jam contains crushed fruit with preserved pulp and fibers for a thicker, spreadable texture. Jelly is made from filtered fruit juice and produces a smooth, translucent gel. The distinction reflects preservation methods developed to extend fruit shelf life while tailoring texture and appearance.

How to create salad dressings with oil and water solutions that don't separate into layers

Such dressings, even when whisked together, often break within a few minutes, resulting in bites that are either harsh or oily. Small amounts of emulsifiers, such as mustard or mayonnaise, can stabilize and suspend oil droplets in water for longer periods because they possess both hydrophilic (water-loving) and hydrophobic (water-repelling) ends.

How texture affects taste

Texture is the brain's interpretation of several sensations, including pressure, as registered by our teeth, tongue, and finger tips, and sound, as recorded by our ears. Texture also speaks to food particle sizes—smaller than 35 microns contributes to the sensation of creamy—and the balance between flavor and mouth time, such as the crunch of a crispy chip or the bounce of a chewy caramel.

A breakdown of gelling agents used to modify a liquid's texture

Gelatin, agar, and other substances form a structural network that traps liquid, making it appear solid and enabling chefs to create stable layers in pastries and confectionery products. In different concentrations, they can also be used to thicken liquids into gels or encase them in gelatinous spheres.

What makes food crispy, and how science can be used to maximize this property

The fracturing texture experienced when biting into vegetable tempura, fried chicken, pastry crusts, and other foods comes from having a dehydrated, porous surface. When frying food in hot oil, trapped water vaporizes and escapes, creating tunnels and pores in the food as it dehydrates. Breading, particularly with the large, irregular shapes of panko, and leaveners can help create more air spaces.

Molecules derived from algae can be found in foods such as ice cream, salad dressings, brownie mix, and gravies, as well as in products such as toothpaste, multivitamins, and egg substitutes.

When it's good for your food to stick in the pan

Non-stick cookware has wired us to think any sticking in the pan is bad. While that's true for cleaning purposes, some foods—like thin smash burgers or sauces—require that stickiness to achieve the right taste or shape.

The history of molecular gastronomy, from thickening yolks with alcohol to making art with food

Before understanding why they worked, humans used scientific principles, including designing solutions and analyzing outcomes, to develop preservation methods like curing meat and fermenting vegetables. By the 20th century, the application of industrialized food preparation to smaller kitchens set the stage for the subdiscipline of food science.

Explaining why salt should be used to season food early in the cooking process

Experiments involving the same dishes, with salt added at the start of cooking versus at the end, have been shown to yield drastically different taste outcomes because salt takes time to diffuse into foods, particularly vegetables, whose cells are surrounded by cellular membranes and walls. Salting at the end will produce a concentrated surface coating, rather than even seasoning.

The importance of volatile aroma compounds in the flavor quality of food

Processes such as air movement and heating cause food to lose aroma molecules, which studies have shown play a major role in our sense of taste. While losing these molecules to the environment leaves fewer to be processed during consumption to intensify flavor, it can also produce previously nonexistent aroma compounds or release previously trapped ones, altering or enhancing the food's flavor.

Barbecue relies on a unique scientific equation

Barbecue's distinct flavor starts with an interaction between the heat source and food, which creates a Maillard Reaction—better known to diners as those crunchy, caramelized bits on the outside.

Specific imperfections are needed to make Swiss cheese

Impurities in the milk are critical for the formation of holes in Emmental. The cleanliness at farms today could potentially eliminate the iconic characteristic, though cheesemakers are finding a solution to preserve the holes that help define the cheese.

The same mold behind penicillin also flavors blue cheese

There are over 300 species of Penicillium. The mold that produces the lifesaving antibiotic is a close relative to those used to make blue cheeses like Roquefort and Stilton and to flavor some types of ham.

What's inside an Oreo?

If you look at the ingredient list on your Oreo packaging, you may discover that you don't recognize—or can't even pronounce—some of the listed ingredients, let alone know what they're used for! For instance: Did you know that soy lecithin helps makes oil and water mix? Or that cocoa processed with alkali becomes darker and less acidic? A food scientist breaks down what's inside an Oreo in this seven-minute video.

A delicious flavor used to be made from a beaver’s butt

Love vanilla-flavored foods? Well, it was once made from castoreum - a yellowish exudate from the castor sacs of mature beavers. And the FDA regards castoreum as “natural flavoring."

Chemistry-informed advice for cooking pasta, including how to prevent clumping noodles

On a molecular level, pasta dough consists of protein structures that hold starch molecules, and the starches absorb water during cooking, forming a gel that softens the pasta. Pasta should not be rinsed after cooking. Instead, some of the pasta water should be added to the pasta sauce, as the gelatinous starch will help the sauce stick to the pasta.

Eggshell color doesn't indicate taste or superiority

Brown, white, and blue eggs taste and cook identically. Despite popular notions that brown eggs are superior, the shell color reflects the genetics of the hen alone. What actually determines egg quality is freshness and the diet of the hen (where grass and leafy greens lead to denser yolks). And freshness can go both ways: older eggs peel more easily than fresh ones.

Explore a list of 12 recipes incorporating techniques from molecular gastronomy

The recipes include popcorn shooters that taste like liquid caramel corn, almost-instant soft serve made by blending frozen fruit with sugar and fromage blanc, a fusion of fried rice and pizza, and skewered fruit coated in a broiled, glossy meringue.

Microwave ovens heat food by agitating certain molecules with non-ionizing light

Molecules with resonant frequencies within the microwave range vibrate, producing heat between adjacent matter, just as hands warm when rubbed together. The mesh in front of an oven's door confines the microwaves to the container, while the rotating plate allows different parts of food to travel through regions of maximum vibration.

Without liver bile, human poop would be a pale silver color

Stomach acid and enzymes break down food into smaller particles, expelling a semi-fluid mass called chyme into the small intestine, where bile is added. As the intestines absorb nutrients and water, the chyme solidifies and changes color.

Many artisan cheesemakers avoid modern methods

While much of the cheese found at the supermarket has been made in a factory, there are still plenty of artisan cheesemakers who do things the old-fashioned way. There is also a burgeoning vegan cheese market, which has quickly evolved from plasticky neon-orange shreds to Camembert-style soft cheeses made using traditional techniques.

Why does it matter that the tundra is melting?

This article explores the tundra's unique environment, where specialized plants and animals thrive despite harsh conditions. One of the most important elements of this ecosystem is permafrost, a layer of permanently frozen soil that many tundra...

Animals' stomach lining produces cheese

Cheesemaking would be impossible without rennet, the enzyme that separates milk’s liquid and solid components. Rennet occurs naturally in the stomach lining of young goats, cows, and lambs to help them digest milk, a process that also allows cheesemakers to use it to make curds. Now we have plant-based rennet that comes from thistles, artichokes, and other similar plants.

Umami synergy—combining glutamates and nucleotides—can amplify a meal

While glutamates are known for triggering the umami taste through specific taste receptors, nucleotides like IMP and GMP can bind alongside glutamates to enhance the receptor's response. This union explains why certain classic food combinations like bacon and eggs taste exceptionally savory.

The benefits of sous vide: cooking food in bags immersed in water

Through this technique, food can be prepared to precise temperatures lower than those of open flames, without the risk of overcooking, with less oil, fat, and salt, and without requiring ongoing attention. By allowing for long cooking times, tougher cuts of meat can also be prepared at lower temperatures.

Explaining the Leidenfrost effect, where water can hover and move against gravity

Water droplets can glide across surfaces whose temperatures are well above water's boiling point. This heat instantly vaporizes the bottom of the droplet, creating a layer of steam that the rest of the droplet rides and bounces upon. This can be seen when sprinkling water on skillets to determine if the surface is hot enough to cook on.

The history of many kitchen appliances involves unexpected discoveries and applications, including wartime radar turned hamster defroster and replacing an 'ice king' with heat-stealing boxes.

Plant based milk is good for the planet, but not quite as good for you

Rising in popularity, plant-based milks are a practical alternative for consumers concerned about sustainability and climate change. Plant-based milks, such as oat, almond, rice, and soy milk, generate about one-third of the greenhouse gases and use...

Differences in pressure and temperature between atmospheric gases create wind

Because Earth's surface is not uniformly heated by the sun at all times, pockets of warmer and cooler air will form and interact. Warmer pockets of less dense air will rise, leaving gaps for cooler, denser air to move in. Wind is this movement of air from high-pressure to low-pressure areas.

The world's most unique cheeses

Some are set apart by their unusual ingredients, like moose milk or live mites. Others are defined by texture, like the Georgian specialty tenili, a very rare hand-pulled cheese that resembles yarn or pasta strands. There’s even a canned cheese that has been using the same strain of bacteria for more than 70 years.

The boiling temperature of water decreases with increasing elevation because the molecules need less energy to overcome the lower atmospheric pressure associated with thinner air.

Low-and-slow smoking transforms tough cuts into tender, flavorful cuisine

Cooking meats at low temperatures over many hours breaks down muscle proteins and collagen into gelatin, making the meat juicy and soft. Patience, gentle smoke, and moisture retention are needed to avoid dry or chewy results.

Roasting controls how your coffee will taste

James Hoffmann, winner of the 2007 World Barista Championship, is the best person to break down the importance of the roasting process. Arguably, along with where beans are grown, roasting is the most important variable in the flavor of your favorite drink.

Gold has no nutritional value or flavor—but edible gold is still popular

Gold is a pretty expensive topping. Nonetheless, luxury menus around the world are offering food staples—think bagels, chocolate, and burgers—wrapped or dusted with gold. What's the deal with this fascination?

The marvels of mucus

Mucus—otherwise known as snot or phlegm—has a gross reputation, but the substance is actually of vital importance, lining the moist surfaces of our nose, intestines, lungs, and more. It plays a constant role in keeping our tissues from drying out and acts as a line of defense, but if it gets too sticky or thick, it can cause problems. Read about the marvels of mucus here.

How chefs suspend liquid in edible pearls resembling caviar to introduce a new texture to fluids

Through spherification, drops of a solution of sodium alginate and a flavored liquid are placed in a calcium lactate solution, which forms a chemical skin around them. This is because calcium replaces the sodium in the alginate chains, forming a gel around each drop's liquid interior.

Fish in polar waters contain proteins in their blood that act as antifreeze, and some manufacturers have used lab-grown versions of these proteins to help keep ice cream smooth.

Tiny water droplets can blur a rainbow's colors into a foggy white

When sunlight enters water droplets, it can reflect from the inside and spread out into different colors, producing a series of colorful arcs—supernumerary bows—which we refer to as rainbows. For droplets a few hundredths of a millimeter in size, these arcs overlap onto each other, producing fogbows of white light.

Martian skies and sunsets resembled Earth's hundreds of millions of years ago

Evidence suggests that Mars has had a thicker atmosphere, which included greenhouse gases, and a magnetic field in its past, resembling Earth's current composition. After losing its magnetic field—the protection from solar wind—the atmosphere and its associated atmospheric phenomena gradually disappeared.

Permafrost—soil, rocks, and sand that are held together by ice and remain frozen for at least two consecutive years—covers about 15% of the Northern Hemisphere's land area.

How cultured meat is made

In recent years, a number of companies have debuted meatless alternatives to traditional burgers, chicken, and more. Some are made from soy, while others use molecular formulations to recreate the flavor profile and texture of meat. Now, actual meat...

Atmospheric composition and temperature impact the color of lightning

Just as fire ranges from red to blue with increasing temperature, lightning's blueish-white comes from the superheating of air. The emission of light from the predominantly nitrogen- and oxygen-rich atmosphere produces a purple tint, with additional color caused by light scattering from humidity, hail, dust, and ash.

Cookies were originally used as low-stakes ways to test the temperature of an oven

In 7th century Persia, bakers used small mounds of dough to test the heat in ovens before baking larger cakes. Afterward, they'd add honey, nuts, and other items to the small mounds, creating early cookies.

Why Coke tastes different at McDonald's

Fans of the sugary soda Coca-Cola have noticed significant differences between its canned variety versus what pours forth from the fountain at McDonald's. Is there anything to the claim? Weird History Food takes a dive into this essential fast-food...