Prehistoric hunter-gatherers performed amputations and appear to have provided post-op care, according to analysis of a recent fossil discovery from almost 31,000 years ago.

Surgery before the dawn of anesthesia

The arc toward anesthetics was painfully slow, with early pain mitigation offerings ranging from analgesics—drugs that dim pain but don't block it—and numbing surgical sites with cold water to gassing patients with carbon dioxide or bashing or bleeding them unconscious. Such treatments and the torturous surgery they preceded led many to avoid even life-saving procedures, and those who survived often kept silent about the trauma.

Humanity's reduced body hair slows down wound healing

Cuts to human skin take twice as long to heal compared to chimps and other mammals. Scientists argue this is due to the reduced number of hair follicles on human bodies. Hair follicles contain stem cells which help repair skin cells faster, so as humanity shed its hair over time, so to speak, it also slowed its wound healing.

Trauma-related amputations are primarily from falls, then car accidents and related traumas, followed by mechanical forces according to analysis based on global burden of disease data in 2017.

Evidence of cancer has been found in a 1.7-million-year-old fossil

Cancer has existed as long as humans have, with some of the earliest evidence found among fossilized bone tumors, human mummies in ancient Egypt, and ancient manuscripts. The oldest example was uncovered in a toe—millions of years old—from an ancestor of modern-day humans.

The concept of phantom limbs, the perception that amputated limbs are still present, dates back to a French military surgeon in the 16th century.

See what analysis of one man's amputated leg, donated to The Bone Museum, tells us about his otherwise invisible pain.

The archaeological discovery that shifted scientists' understanding of human evolution

In 2003, archaeologists in Indonesia uncovered the remains of a 3-foot-tall skeleton that appeared to belong to a new type of human. Read this article to learn how the discovery of this 50,000-year-old skeleton upended the idea that human evolution...

The concept of phantom limbs, the perception that amputated limbs are still present, dates back to a French military surgeon in the 16th century.

Neanderthals commonly had surfer's ear, a potential sign of extensive seafood collection

Analysis from 2019 found that about half of the 23 Neanderthal skulls scientists examined seemed to have the bony growths in the inner ear, signifying they had surfer's ear. Those growths suggest our ancient relatives, dating back to between perhaps 100,000 and 40,000 years ago, were potentially hunting fish, mollusks, or other marine resources in chilly waters.

Searching for the history of cancer in ancient human bones

Nestled under archaeology lies bioarchaeology, which involves the study of bones, human or animal. This subfield recently birthed another field of study: paleo-oncology. Paleo-oncology looks for cancer and related biomarkers in bioarchaeological remains. This TED article explains how this nascent multidisciplinary field challenges the idea that cancer is modern.

Recent research found that the brain doesn't seem to massively rewire following amputation—upending earlier beliefs about the cause of phantom limb pain.

With no textbooks or antibiotics, this WWI surgeon pioneered facial reconstruction

New Zealand surgeon Dr. Harold Gillies made extraordinary advances in the field of reconstructive surgery during World War I and after. This 36-minute NPR podcast interviews historian Lindsey Fitzharris, author of Gillie's biography, The Facemaker, charting how the good doctor reconstructed the faces of numerous soldiers in an age before antibiotics and plastic surgery as we know it today.

The Paranthropus genus, our mysterious extinct cousins

In the last century, skull and jaw fragments have been discovered in East Africa suggesting an ancient hominin species lived, evolved, and died alongside humanity's ancestors. With large, broad skulls and strong jaws, the Paranthropus genus—which includes several related species—is an absorbing case of the effects of niche partitioning, where species coexist by adapting differently to the environment. Paranthropus died out and human ancestors endured. Find out why here.

How do we know what prehistoric humans ate?

Without recourse to ancient menus, how can historians know what our ancient human ancestors—as far as 3 million years ago—ate on a daily basis? Researchers evaluate several factors, including the type of teeth the species had evolved, chemical analysis of the teeth, patterns of wear and tear on teeth, as well as food scraps found in the vicinity of ancient remains. Learn the approach to discovering ancient hominin diets.

Listen to how bionic limbs are reshaping what it means to live as an amputee in this award-winning 2022 podcast series covering the stories of two amputees who struggled with shortcomings in prosthetic technology.

Here's how early humans lived

Explore the evidence of early human behavior—from ancient footprints to stone tools and the earliest symbols and art – along with similarities and differences in the behavior of other primate species.

Cadaver dogs are helping archaeologists uncover decaying history

Archaeologists are increasingly relying on dogs to help find decaying bodies at burial sites, some of them up to thousands of years old. This is helping archaeologists to detect past remains without ever touching a shovel, which means there's less...

The history of skull modification

The ancient Maya people sometimes modified their skulls to appear more conical. Body modification has been a human pastime for literal ages, from piercings to bindings and everything in between. Modifying one's skull shape may have been a way to symbolize status, beauty, belonging, or belief. The health impacts of such practices are still debated. This article explores the history and health impacts of skull modification, also known as artificial cranial deformation.

Amputees must navigate the challenging medical and economic aspects of limb support and replacement, but advances in technology and research may reduce these costs.

What ancient goat teeth reveal about ancient human-animal relationships

About 4,000 years ago, several goats with terrible teeth managed to outlive their better-teethed brethren. With such intense dental damage, the goats were likely fed higher-quality feed than the more dentally gifted herd members, a dietary shift that would've contributed to the difference in life span. These goat teeth underscore the hard truth that humans may inflict harm on the animals they care about most, regardless of intention.

How 'the Iceman' got his tattoos remains a mystery

Ötzi the Iceman, discovered in 1991, is one of the oldest human mummies ever found—and his 61 tattoos remain a mystery. This explainer looks at how researchers believe the tattoos were made, what their placement suggests about ancient medicine and culture, and why we’re still piecing together their true purpose today.

The lifestyles of early humans

For 2.5 million years, humans lived on Earth without leaving a written record of their lives—but they left behind other kinds of remains and artifacts.

The Ishango bone suggests mathematics was born about 20,000 years ago

Ancient civilizations developed mathematical systems for various purposes, including the Egyptians for the construction of the pyramids and the Ancient Greeks for logical reasoning in theorems. However, these systems were predated by the Ishango bone—found in the Democratic Republic of the Congo—whose notches suggest a base ten system, prime numbers, and simple mathematical operations.

The world’s oldest tattoos belong to 'Iceman' Ötzi

Ötzi is the corpse of "the Iceman" found in the Alps along the Italian and Austrian border in 1991. His mummified body was covered with lines and crosses along the “hard-working” areas of his body, signifying their potential application for therapeutic pain management.

Why our ancestors didn't have crooked teeth

The ancient human fossil record is filled with specimens with pretty nice teeth. So why do modern humans have dental problems? Scientists can't be certain, but one hypothesis suggests the evolutionary shrinking of the human jaw crowded our mouths,...

Exploring the link between history, art, and anatomy

Throughout centuries, art has played a vital role in sharing—and furthering—scientific understanding. This largely began in 1543 when physician Andreas Vesalius worked with an artist and engraver to transform learnings from his dissections into...

Researchers have investigated the benefits of extreme pain rituals, exploring how and why we engage in these events when humans generally naturally avoid pain and perceive it as a negative experience.

Research suggests the brain maintains connections to lost limbs

Decades-old research suggested brain reorganization after amputations, but brain scans show unchanged limb representations. Phantom limb pain may result from such unchanged brain maps, which may enhance prosthetic limb control in brain-computer interface technology.

The archaeology of human sacrifice

Human sacrifice appears in cultures around the globe. But how do we know that to be true? Scientists can tell the difference between ritual sacrifice and mass graves better explained by war and political instability. Learn how in this article about...

Ancient humans and other early hominins were closer than you might think

Evidence that human ancestors and other early hominins coexisted continues to accumulate, raising the question of just how close these ancient people truly were. This article details how evidence is changing the theory that early hominins like...