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Rosalind FranklinRosalind Franklin was a chemist and X-ray crystallographer who researched the structure of carbon compounds, DNA, and viruses. Although her obituary recognized her primarily as a virus researcher, she is best known today for Photo 51. The image has become associated with her then-unrecognized contributions to the 1962 Nobel Prize for the model of DNA's structure, for which she has been called the "dark lady of DNA."
During World War II, she volunteered as an air raid warden and contributed to coal research to improve its effectiveness as an energy source and gas mask filtration. Using her skills in crystallography—the science of determining the atomic structure of matter—she discovered the spacing between the building blocks of DNA and its molecular dimensions.
Before her death, she studied plant virus structures, laying the groundwork for the 1982 Nobel Prize in chemistry.Explore Rosalind Franklin
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Computed tomography scans use X-rays to create 3D internal imagesJust as shadows can reveal the shape of obstacles blocking visible light, the donut-shaped CT scanner measures how X-rays are blocked, revealing the shape of bones, organs, tissue, and other matter along a cross-section. As it rotates, the scanner combines these cross-sections to build a model of the internal structure. TED-EdElectron accelerators are used to create X-ray lasersIn an X-ray free-electron laser, electromagnetic fields are used to accelerate and move electrons in wiggling patterns, causing them to emit synchronized, high-energy X-rays. This resulting light beam can strike targets up to 120 times per second to create movies of changing molecular structures and phenomena. SLAC National Accelerator LaboratoryMarie Curie developed and trained women to operate mobile X-ray units in World War IThe “petites Curies” allowed medical professionals to identify the severity of wounds without transporting soldiers to medical facilities, expediting treatment and saving lives. The efforts of Curie and other women led to expansions in their rights after the war. Encyclopaedia BritannicaWatch a crystal undergo X-ray diffraction to determine its internal geometryIn the early days of X-ray crystallography, getting photos of a single sample could take dozens of hours, followed by months of mathematical analysis. Today, automation and computer software can complete such tasks in a few hours. Finn BurrowX-ray data from Rosalind Franklin was key to discovering DNA’s double-helix structureAlthough unpublished, the data reached James Watson and Francis Crick, who worked at another institution. Incorporating her data allowed them to validate their model of DNA, which they published without crediting her. NewsthinkX-ray diffraction reveals atomic structures by analyzing how crystals scatter X-raysX-ray diffraction involves rotating a crystal in an X-ray beam while a detector captures the resulting diffraction patterns, which depend on the crystal’s internal structure. The mathematical principles behind the technique won the 1915 Nobel Prize and improved crystallography. BrukerX-rays earned the very first Nobel Prize in physics for revealing hidden worldsIn 1895, Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen discovered X-rays, which could pass through solid objects and make unseen structures visible. Today’s X-ray tools continue to advance science and medicine, including capturing real-time images of proteins. DW NewsX-rays shed light on how Pompeii victims really diedHistorians previously theorized that much of Pompeii was suffocated by the clouds of ash that plumed out of Mount Vesuvius in 79 CE. This article disputes recent claims the volcano's blast killed victims instantly, arguing instead the victims of Pompeii had a window of time between the destructive waves to escape, but were thwarted by falling ash. Noninvasive x-rays of plaster casts of seven bodies buried by the eruption suggest the victims had survived the first phase of the eruption. Science.orgEvery human being shares 99.9% of the same DNAThe remaining 0.1% provides all the diversity seen in our species, but some individuals can also contain multiple sets of DNA. How is this possible, and why does some of our DNA contain remnants of viruses? Click the title of this resource to learn about DNA. 1440Ever used a CRT television? Then you've used a particle accelerator!While atom smashers like the Large Hadron Collider come to mind when thinking of particle accelerators, there are more than 30,000 worldwide! How do these devices work, and where else are they hiding in plain sight? Click the title of this resource to find out. 1440The importance of the mesosphere, the coldest part of Earth's atmosphereAtmospheric gases are dense enough in this region to begin burning up debris traveling toward Earth's surface, producing meteor showers, or shooting stars. Although we normally associate decreasing temperatures with increasing altitude, temperatures increase beyond the mesosphere layer due to the absorption of high-energy ultraviolet radiation and X-rays. Royal Belgian Institute for Space AeronomyExplore human anatomy with these beautiful imagesThe Human Organ Atlas offers detailed 3D images of dozens of human organs. It was created with very bright X-rays from a particle accelerator, which is formally called a synchroton imaging method. Human Organ AtlasParticle accelerators have been used to reveal detailed ant anatomyUsing a synchrotron facility at the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology in Germany, a pair of X-ray beams swept across about 2,200 ant specimens to create over 200 terabytes of projection images from multiple angles. The images were compiled into micrometer-resolution 3D reconstructions of 792 species, which are freely accessible on the Antscan platform. IEEE SpectrumThe structure of DNA helices comes in three major varietiesThe hereditary molecule can take the form of A-DNA, B-DNA, or Z-DNA based on environmental conditions such as ion concentration and humidity—a characteristic identified by Rosalind Franklin. A-DNA is the shortest and widest of the three, while Z-DNA is the longest and narrowest. B-DNA—the most common variety in living cells—is the intermediate. ChemTalkMarie Curie's daughter Irene discovered artificial radioactivityThe discovery continued the family's Nobel legacy by winning the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1935 alongside her husband, Frederic Joliot. Their work laid the foundation for the use of radioisotopes in medicine, agriculture, and energy production. The ConversationA particle accelerator allowed researchers to noninvasively examine a mummyThe mummy hailed from the Faiyum oasis, where Egyptian and Roman cultures intersected, and was analyzed using the Advanced Photon Source at Argonne National Laboratory. The device used high-energy X-rays to probe the material composition of numerous objects embedded deep inside the mummy without damaging its remains. PBS NewsSynchrotron radiation has revealed the fur color of creatures millions of years oldWhen electrons are accelerated in the loop, they produce intense X-rays that can reveal properties of a sample struck by them, just as X-rays can be used to show bone structure in humans. Studying the reflected light from fossils can uncover the presence of known pigmentation compounds. SLAC National Accelerator LaboratoryParticle accelerators propel matter toward small targets at high speedDevices like cathode-ray tube televisions were once basic particle accelerators, but modern ones, such as the Large Hadron Collider, use massive magnetic fields and circular tunnels to achieve energies high enough to recreate the conditions just after the big bang. Space.comDsup protects DNA from radiation up to 3,000 times the tolerable human doseA key component of a tardigrade’s biochemical toolkit, the damage suppressor protein is produced and binds to DNA molecules when the animal enters its dormant tun state. Dsup has provided a 50% reduction in double-strand DNA breaks in mice after exposure to X-rays. MIT NewsView a collection of historical documents about molecular biology's historyThe collection features materials related to those involved in the discovery of DNA and provides historical context for the discoveries of RNA, various viruses, and important bioproteins. The items include photographs, business correspondence, manuscripts, and scientific instruments. Science History InstituteThe structure of the Bullet Cluster cannot be explained without dark matterIn gravitational lensing, mass bends spacetime, deflecting passing light rays. Instead of this deflection being strongest near the gas within galaxies, where visible matter is densest, lensing is strongest in front of the collided galaxies. This suggests the presence of clumps of dark matter that were not slowed by friction during impact. Big ThinkCT scanners at airports take images across energy bands to identify baggage contentsOld X-ray scanners' inability to distinguish between water and explosives has driven strict liquid bans and longer wait times through airport security. New scanners combine multi-angle images across the energy spectrum to determine an object's density and atomic composition for improved threat detection. Real EngineeringBeyond DNA, Franklin's legacy extends into modern virology and steel productionWhile remembered for her critical but under-credited role in uncovering parameters for the structure of DNA, Rosalind Franklin made significant contributions across coal chemistry and virus structure. Her research helped improve fuel efficiency, wartime protective equipment, and foundational knowledge in molecular biology. NatureWatson and Crick revealed DNA's double-helix structure using others' key findingsTheir 1953 model, made from cardboard cutouts, explained how DNA stores genetic information through base pairing. Rather than experimenting and collecting their own data, they incorporated patterns and data from other scientists through trial and error. NatureView the model of the tobacco mosaic virus from the 1958 Brussels World's FairAfter she finished analyzing her X-ray diffraction data on DNA fibers, Rosalind Franklin explored plant virus structures. For her work on the TMV, she was invited to build this 5-foot model, modified from earlier versions made of ping pong balls and bicycle handlebar grips. ResearchGateExplore a 3D model of the experimental setup Rosalind Franklin used to take Photo 51To capture the X-ray diffraction image of DNA from the thymus of a calf, Franklin built a humidity-controlling camera to isolate the B form of DNA. The exposure lasted 60 hours and produced a cross pattern, indicating a helical structure. SketchfabRosalind Franklin’s work led to Nobel Prize-winning discoveries in DNA and virologyHer X-ray diffraction imaging helped uncover the structure of DNA, which earned James Watson, Francis Crick, and Maurice Wilkins a Nobel Prize. The same techniques enabled virus imaging, contributing to Aaron Klug's Nobel Prize in chemistry. ScienceDirectExploring carbon compound pore structures contributed to improved gas mask filtrationDuring World War II, the British Coal Utilisation Research Association sought to improve the efficiency of coal as an energy source and studied the effectiveness of charcoal filters to keep soldiers safe. Rosalind Franklin's research there formed the basis of her PhD and led to five scientific papers. NIHPhoto 51's distinct 'X' pattern and spacing provided data to validate DNA's modelRosalind Franklin and Raymond Gosling captured the photo after bombarding DNA fibers with X-rays and observing how the beams were deflected. The photo had a 62-hour exposure time and indicated a helical structure for DNA. King's College LondonExperts reconstruct Pompeii’s daily life—and whether disaster could strike againThis documentary utilizes archaeology, X-rays, and 3D reconstructions to reconstruct what the streets, homes, and rituals of Pompeii looked like before 79 CE. Scientists also use satellite imaging to track landslide risks that could damage the site today. Real HistoryHomology-directed repair is the DNA repair method used by cellsEnvironmental factors like X-ray exposure may break a strand of DNA, but cells can use a sister strand to patch the damage. Scientists exploit this system by introducing custom DNA templates, which cells use instead to make repairs. Science Communication LabThe Event Horizon Telescope captured the first photo of a black hole in 2019Predicted by Einstein in 1916, these invisible objects can be indirectly seen through their accretion discs and X-ray bursts. Over 40 million trillion black holes may be scattered throughout the universe. 1440Albert Einstein's equations predicted black holes decades before their discoveryFor nearly 50 years, scientists dismissed black holes as implausible oddities, despite solutions to the equations indicating their existence. But the 1970s discovery of intense X-rays from Cygnus X-1 and its massive hidden companion flipped the consensus. Astronomy Magazine
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