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InfluenzaInfluenza, or the flu, is a contagious respiratory illness that has shaped human history for centuries, with records of outbreaks dating back thousands of years. The term comes from 15th-century Italy, when epidemics were thought to result from the “influence” of the stars.
The virus itself wasn’t scientifically identified until 1933. Still, pandemics long predated the discovery, most notably the devastating 1918 “Spanish flu,” which killed an estimated 50 million to 100 million people (2.5% to 5% of the world’s population) worldwide.
The virus mutates constantly through small genetic shifts and, more rarely, major recombinations that can spark pandemics. Seasonal flu still causes up to 1 billion cases and as many as 650,000 deaths annually. While most cases resolve with rest and fluids, complications for individuals at higher risk for serious illness can be deadly. Annual vaccination, guided by global surveillance of circulating strains, remains the most effective defense.Explore Influenza
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How Kurt Cobain's suicide changed the mediaPublic health experts feared that the suicide of a high-profile figure, especially for young people, would lead to a rise in suicides across the country. The opposite turned out to be true: Suicide rates decreased. Specialists suggest that's due to the way Cobain's death was covered, with news organizations largely avoiding glorification and including crisis hotline information. NewsweekOne in seven US tax dollars is collected by local governmentsLocal governments collect about $886B each year to support education, infrastructure, and public health. Roughly three-quarters of this funding comes from property taxes, with the rest sourced from sales, excise, and income taxes. Institute of Taxation and Economic PolicyState and local governments fund very different servicesLocal governments allocate 39% of their spending to K-12 education, while states allocate less than 1% directly—although much of local education funding actually comes from state and federal grants to local communities. States instead allocate their budgets to public welfare and health programs (45%) and higher education (15%). Urban InstituteLyme disease may cost about $1B annually in the USThe economic burden of the disease in this estimate includes direct medical costs and societal costs, including productivity losses. It does not include suspected, undiagnosed, or nonacute cases, which would push that figure upward. Yale School of Public HealthSearch Lyme disease incidence in your countyThe searchable database at the bottom of this webpage allows users to check the reported incidence of Lyme disease in US counties and Canadian health regions. In 2022, for example, Baltimore County in Maryland had a rate of about 34 probable and confirmed cases per 100,000 people. Arlington, County in Virginia was less than half of that for the same time period. Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public HealthTicks must typically be attached to a person for more than 24 hours to transmit LymeInfected blacklegged ticks must typically be attached to a person for more than 24 hours—and often closer to 36—to transmit Lyme. That period is enough time for the bacteria that causes Lyme to migrate from the tick's gut into the person's bloodstream while it's latched on through its bite. (There are rare documented cases of transmission under 24 hours.) Rapid removal of the tick is key to disease prevention. New York State Department of Public HealthLyme disease is caused by bacteria transmitted through the bite of infected ticksIt's an infectious disease caused by Borrelia burgdorferi bacteria. It's spread through the bite of two species of infected ticks, the Western blacklegged ticks on the West Coast, and Blacklegged ticks found throughout the eastern US. The ticks can transmit the disease at both the nymph and adult stage. It's not known to be transmitted from one person to another via kissing or sex. California Department of Public HealthPolicies related to the coronavirus pandemic inadvertently increased illegal border crossingsA pandemic-era public health measure called Title 42—intended to seal the border by expelling migrants immediately—backfired. Because expulsions carried no legal consequences, migrants simply tried again, driving illegal crossings to a peak of over 370,000 people in December 2023. University of PennsylvaniaNoise from data centers may disrupt wildlife and local residentsIndividuals living where local ordinances have allowed data centers to be built next to residential areas have reported that the constant humming and vibrations from cooling systems have prevented them from sleeping and exposed them to chronic noise, which the American Public Health Association says can lead to cardiovascular disease and increased stress. Business InsiderDollar stores are often found in rural, low-income areas of the USShoppers in these areas are increasingly turning to dollar stores for food. A study published in 2023 found that dollar stores were the fastest-growing food retailers by household expenditure share, with rural growth outpacing growth elsewhere (a 102.9% increase in rural areas versus 89.7% elsewhere). American Public Health AssociationKava, kratom, St. John's Wort, and green tea extract present health concernsConsumer Reports, which tests supplements for safety, urges consumers to avoid these four supplements due to safety warnings from researchers and public health authorities. Consumer ReportsMusicians are 57% more likely to have tinnitus compared to the general publicMusicians have four times the risk of developing hearing loss, and their risk of developing tinnitus is increased by more than half. Hearing Health FoundationOral polio vaccines cause approximately 250 to 500 polio cases per year globallyLive, weakened polioviruses in the oral vaccine can very rarely mutate into a disease-causing form and lead to vaccine-associated paralytic poliomyelitis. This oral vaccine is not available in the United States. Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public HealthAmerica had a national leprosarium—a leper colony—in Louisiana until 1999Public health officials forcibly sent those diagnosed with leprosy to the Louisiana Leper Home in Carville, first founded in 1894. Listen to an interview about this site, its evolution, and how its residents advocated for themselves—including regaining the right to vote. Texas Public RadioThe COVID-19 pandemic led to a decrease in immunizations in the US and worldwidePublic health funds and resources that were diverted to COVID-19 response reduced efforts to combat polio and vaccinations for polio and other diseases declined during the pandemic, putting more people at risk for polio. University of California Davis HealthPolio is currently circulating in only two countries but it remains difficult to eradicateWild polio virus is only endemic in two places. Afghanistan and Pakistan are the last two countries with naturally occurring polio cases. Vaccination campaigns have been plagued by misinformation, Taliban bans on vaccines, distrust of public health workers, and violence, including the killing of vaccinators. Council on Foreign RelationsWhy some US cities pay thousands of dollars for a single public trash canThe rationale supposes high-end, heavy-duty trash cans reduce litter and maintenance costs, justifying per-unit costs of close to $3,000 in some municipalities. But results are mixed, and some experiments using cheap 55-gallon drums were similarly effective. The HustleFracking rates may increase with the construction of new data centersIn Pennsylvania, plans to build at least five new facilities supported by gas-fired power plants are expected to escalate public health risks through surges in air and water pollution. Data center water demands are expected to further strain local resources. Yale E360Immigration enforcement shows how federalism plays out on the groundIn recent years, federalism has shifted from allowing policy diversity across states to open conflict, with states and the federal government increasingly trying to impose their preferences on one another over issues like abortion, voting, immigration, and public health. Brookings Hip-hop legends the Notorious B.I.G., Jay-Z, Busta Rhymes, and DMX all attended the same New York high schoolAll four emcees attended George Westinghouse Career and Technical Education High School, a vocational public school in downtown Brooklyn. Jay-Z and Busta Rhymes were well-known as rappers when they were in school, once even battle-rapping one another in the lunchroom. (Jay-Z won.) Mic19 fungal pathogens are of key concern to world health officialsIn 2022, this global health body issued its first-ever list of top fungal threats to human health. It said fungal threats are spreading and occurring more frequently. The WHO’s list included 19 fungal pathogens to watch, and said that the most dangerous ones to public health are Cryptococcus neoformans, Aspergillus fumigatus, Candida albicans, and Candida auris. There are only a handful of classes of medication currently available to combat fungal pathogens, with few others in the pipeline even though antimicrobial resistance is growing. World Health OrganizationSocial jetlag—differing weekend and weekday schedules—is physiologically similar to jet lagRecovering from schedules that drastically differ between weekends and weekdays, something that was first described in academic work in 2006, is a growing concern in public health as more research shows that consistent daily routines are important for human health. National Library of MedicineThe WEF’s Edison Alliance connected more than 1 billion people to digital servicesBy 2024, the World Economic Forum-backed Edison Alliance had delivered digital connectivity and access to financial, healthcare, and education services to more than 1 billion people, using public-private partnerships across Africa, Asia, Latin America, and the US. TimeThe disaster affected the Soviet Union's credibility at home and abroadThe USSR's secretive, chaotic response to Chernobyl dealt a significant blow to its legitimacy. Public anger over deception, health risks, and propaganda fueled mass protests, strengthened independence movements in Ukraine and Belarus, and convinced many Soviets that the system was failing. BBCThe Safe Drinking Water Act protects tap water for AmericansPassed in 1974, the Safe Drinking Water Act requires the EPA to set and enforce national standards for public water systems. It regulates contaminants, funds infrastructure improvements, and ensures that communities nationwide have access to safe and clean drinking water. AmericanWaterWorksEnding daylight saving time may prevent as many as 300,000 strokes annuallyChanging clocks twice a year disrupts circadian rhythms, which last an average of 24 hours and 12 minutes. Studies have shown that permanent daylight saving time provides fewer health benefits than standard time. Popular ScienceJK Rowling’s comments on transgender issues have sparked controversy and boycottsSince 2019, Rowling’s public statements on gender and trans issues have prompted widespread backlash, leading many fans to attempt to distance her views from the Harry Potter series. The WeekThe best time to get a flu vaccine may be late-September or early-OctoberThe body needs a few weeks after the vaccine to build up a sufficient antibody response, which eventually wanes. Scheduling the vaccine accordingly can maximize its effectiveness when flu season ramps up. IFLScienceInfluenza infects up to a billion people worldwide each yearThe World Health Organization estimates that seasonal influenza causes about 1B cases annually, including 3 to 5M severe illnesses and between 290,000 to 650,000 deaths. World Health OrganizationLearn the history and science of influenza in 'This Podcast Will Kill You'In their flu episode, cohosts Erin Welsh and Erin Allmann Updyke unpack influenza’s biology, history, and impact—explaining everything from past pandemics to modern vaccines, all with their trademark mix of science and storytelling. This Podcast Will Kill YouHuman records of influenza stretch back more than two millenniaAccounts of flu-like illness appear as early as 412 BCE, when Hippocrates described a sudden wave of cough and fever. Centuries of recurring outbreaks culminated in the first clearly documented pandemic in 1580, spreading from Asia into Europe and Africa. OMG Medical HistoryHistorian John Barry revisits the 1918 flu pandemicIn this podcast episode, historian John Barry explores the 1918 influenza pandemic—from its wartime origins and deadly second wave in Philadelphia to government missteps, global impacts, and comparisons with later pandemics like H1N1 swine flu. Peter AttiaAnnual flu shots remain the best defense against influenzaFlu vaccination typically reduces the risk of medical visits by 30 to 60% and lowers hospitalization rates by around 40%. Between 2023 and 2024, in the US alone, vaccines prevented an estimated 120,000 hospitalizations and nearly 7,900 deaths. CDCEurope’s first recorded influenza pandemic swept the continent in 1580The 1580 influenza pandemic, traced from Asia to Africa and into Europe, became the first flu outbreak clearly documented across the continent—killing tens of thousands and highlighting influenza’s potential for rapid global spread. OriginsThe flu is a contagious respiratory illness caused by influenza virusesUnlike the common cold, influenza attacks suddenly with fever, body aches, and fatigue. Seasonal strains circulate worldwide, infecting up to a billion people each year and causing hundreds of thousands of deaths despite vaccines and treatments. Cleveland ClinicThe R0 value is how epidemiologists quantify disease contagiousnessThe basic reproduction number indicates the average number of people a person with a disease will infect. Measles is the most contagious disease, with an R0 of 12-18, though vaccines have significantly reduced the number of susceptible individuals. ScienceAlertPenicillin ended scarlet fever’s deadly threat to children Between 1840 and 1883, scarlet fever was among the leading causes of childhood death in the United States, with case fatality rates ranging from 15% to 30%. Today, thanks to antibiotics like penicillin, the mortality rate is below 1%.
Cato InstituteKey milestones in the history of the World Health Organization The World Health Organization, a UN agency founded in 1948, was first proposed at the 1945 UN Conference to coordinate global health efforts. This interactive timeline marks the WHO’s 75th anniversary with major public health milestones. World Heath OrganizationA timeline of major pandemics from 1899–2025Modern pandemics have been defined by the race between globalization (which increases risk) and the development of new medicines. The Great Influenza epidemic claimed some 50 million lives, and the COVID-19 pandemic killed more than 7 million. In between, diseases like Ebola, cholera, AIDS, and more have devastated communities. Council on Foreign RelationsWind farms are targets for conspiracy theories due to their visibility and complexityThe proliferation of misinformation and conspiracy theories surrounding wind farms is driven by deep-seated anxieties about change, distrust of government, and resistance to confronting the complexities of modern energy solutions. The ConversationEstimates suggest inactivity contributes to 6% of deaths worldwideThe World Health Organization identifies physical inactivity as the fourth leading modifiable risk factor for global mortality, just behind hypertension, tobacco use, and high blood glucose. Latest estimates are that inactivity contributes to 6% of deaths and significantly increases the burden of chronic diseases like heart disease, diabetes, and cancer. National Institutes of HealthMinneapolis' sewage-filled Schieks CaveSchieks Cave is a geologic anomaly roughly 75 feet below Minneapolis discovered in 1904 by a sewer engineer. The cave contains a large pool of sewage which warms the nearby groundwater by more than 20 degrees Fahrenheit. The city closed the cave to the public, though concerns remain over its public health risks. Atlas ObscuraThe lack of guidance on getting off GLP-1s leaves patients at riskDr. David Kessler, former FDA Commissioner and public health leader, explores how these drugs override the brain’s reward-driven eating habits but have notable side effects. These include developing eating disorders, muscle loss, and intestinal obstruction. NPRX’s brand health has sharply declined since Elon Musk’s takeoverSince Musk acquired the platform, impression, quality, and satisfaction scores have all turned negative—reflecting widespread disapproval among former and current users. As of fall 2024, despite the reputational damage, X remains the sixth-most-visited website globally. YouGovSouth Asia and sub-Saharan Africa are most at risk from falling pollinator numbersResearchers at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health found that declines in pollinator populations would lead to higher rates of nutritional deficiencies, particularly in developing nations. Nations with large populations, such as China and India, would also be significantly impacted. Harvard UniversityVarious pollutants may be contributing to a male infertility crisisMale infertility, due to declining sperm counts or quality, accounts for about half of the cases of infertility among couples. Recent research has found that global sperm counts fell on average by 1.2% per year between 1973 and 2018—from 104 million to 49 million per milliliter. From 2000, this rate of decline accelerated to more than 2.6% per year. BBC NewsSteve Jobs in his final public talkThe last major event outside of Apple that Steve Jobs spoke at, prior to his death in 2011, was the 2010 All Things Digital conference. In spite of his declining health, he is voluble and combative throughout. AppleZoonotic diseases: Pathogens that jump from animals to humansSuch diseases may be caused by a variety of pathogens—viruses, bacteria, fungi, or parasites—and can originate in creatures ranging from ticks and mosquitoes to pigs and bats. Because they develop in animals and are often new to human immune systems, zoonotic diseases have severe consequences for public health. 1440Some influencers are facing the dark side of being a public personaFrom burnout to stalkers, a content creator’s life can quickly become complicated as their following grows. Women’s Health recently spoke with some creators about what they wish they’d known before they started their careers on social media. Women's HealthMorphine, heroin, codeine, and more were derived from opiumOpium reached the US at about the time early colonists were itching for ways to soothe aches and pains. The active ingredient in the substance was isolated in the early 19th century, eventually leading to the manufacture and commercial sale of morphine, heroin, and other opium-based drugs. Hopkins Bloomberg Public Health Magazine