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Crude OilCrude oil is the world's primary energy resource. Predominantly composed of molecules of hydrogen and carbon, the mixture formed when microorganisms, such as algae and plankton, were compressed and heated under layers of sediment for millions of years. Although used as early as 3,000 BCE to waterproof boats, crude oil was not widely extracted and refined until the mid-19th century, when it increasingly transformed society as a raw material for fuels, plastics, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and more.
Engineers find oil reservoirs by mapping subterranean contents using a variety of techniques, including gravity, magnetic, and seismic reflection surveys, before drilling a well for extraction. Because the extracted oil is "crude"—an unsorted mix of hydrocarbons—refineries typically boil it to produce a vapor mixture. In a fractional distillation tower, where temperature decreases with altitude, these vapors are sorted into layers as they condense back into liquid at distinct heights.
Once distilled, sorted hydrocarbons are separately processed into useful petroleum products. This includes cracking, which breaks larger molecules into smaller ones, like the building blocks for plastics, and reforming, which makes the various octane blends available at gas stations. These processes, along with leaks and spills, are sources of toxic pollutants that can cause significant environmental damage and adverse health effects for those living near refineries.Explore Crude Oil
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The story of the first commercial US oil well and why crude oil is measured in barrelsThe 1859 oil discovery in Titusville, Pennsylvania, sparked a boom in oil exploration and production to meet the demand for kerosene lamp fuel. Because the 42-gallon barrel was a readily available container already in use for shipping fish, butter, wine, and other goods, it was adopted by the Petroleum Producers Association in 1872 and by both the US Geological Survey and the US Bureau of Mines in 1882. American Oil & Gas Historical SocietyView a sample of objects surprisingly derived from crude oil, including chewing gum and lipstickCrude oil processing produces a variety of fuels and the building blocks for plastics, but it also distills out the hydrocarbons used to make aspirin, Teflon, vinyl, crayons, candles, Tupperware, roofing shingles, asphalt pavement, hair dye, anesthetics, food-grade lubricants, polyester, synthetic rubber, and resins for items like dentures. Rig SourceDemystifying the claim that crude oil is inorganically created and a renewable resourceThe abiogenic petroleum theory holds that fossil fuels originate in Earth's mantle and are constantly replenished, rather than formed by microorganisms over millions of years. While inorganic chemical processes can produce simple hydrocarbons, the range of complex molecules found in crude oil suggests an origin from a diverse set of organisms. Isotope analyses of these molecules also support the model that they originated from living things that preferentially take up certain isotopes over others. Sabine HossenfelderLearn about unconventional ways to clean up crude oil, including using moss and chickensStudies show that microorganisms in chicken manure can break down the hydrocarbons in crude oil without producing toxic byproducts. Scientists have also explored avoiding the environmental risks of chemical dispersants and synthetic adsorbents by using human hair and peat moss to adsorb crude oil, which can be taken up by their cuticles and porous structures, respectively. SciShowUnderstanding the causes and environmental impacts of crude oil spills and leaksAlthough some oil regularly leaks from the bottom of the oceans through the gradual erosion of sedimentary rock, major spills result from accidental ruptures of pipelines or damage to transportation vessels or rigs. Oil can break down the water-repelling ability of feathers, remove the insulation of fur, and poison food chains if ingested. Earth.orgAn animated visualization of the distillation of crude oil into petroleum productsWhen crude oil is boiled, its constituent hydrocarbons turn into steam and rise through a distillation tower, where temperature decreases with height. Because different chemical vapors cool back into liquids at distinct temperatures, hydrocarbons naturally sort themselves by boiling point and can then be processed separately into distinct outputs. ÜRET BrülörA guide to crude oil and natural gas extraction, from rig site preparation to land restorationRequirements for traffic plans, access roads, and noise barriers vary by state and local laws, but once the rig site is prepared, the rig is assembled and digs a well that gets encased by steel and cement to protect groundwater reservoirs. After drilling and testing the extraction pipe, fracking fluid is injected into the rock to create cracks where crude oil resides, allowing it to be pumped out. Coloradans for Responsible Energy DevelopmentA look at types of crude oil, distinguished by properties like heaviness and sweetnessAPI Gravity is a unit that describes how heavy or light a crude oil sample is based on its density, with higher values indicating lighter, more valuable oil that requires less processing. The sweetness of crude oil refers to the amount of sulfur it contains, where sour crude oil requires more extensive treatment to remove the more abundant sulfur and sweeten it. Kimray IncThe recorded history of crude oil use, starting with Babylonians waterproofing boatsThe ancient civilization located in modern-day Iraq also used crude oil as mortar in construction, while the Egyptians used it to treat human remains during the mummification process. After the invention of the first motor car in 1885 and the introduction of the affordable Model T in 1908, demand for crude oil skyrocketed. BBCAn overview of crude oil, including its constituent hydrocarbons and refinement outputsThe mixture is primarily composed of molecules of carbon and hydrogen atoms bonded into a variety of shapes and lengths, giving each different chemical properties, such as boiling points. Refining can remove elemental impurities, such as sulfur, after hydrocarbons are separated, ensuring the resulting products can be used effectively in other machines, such as car engines. The AtlanticUnderstanding why the US can't use its own crude oil and depends on global marketsBefore advancements in fracking technology made lighter shale oil readily available, US refineries had been built and optimized for decades to process heavier oil from other countries with high profitability. Despite being able to refine lighter oil, US oil companies can operate with better margins by exporting it to other nations whose refineries are optimized for it and importing heavier oil, for which the US has the infrastructure. Morning BrewLearn about the chemical refinement of crude oil, from cracking to reforming and blendingJust as an organism's digestive system can break down complex molecules in food into simple sugars that cells can use, cracking uses catalysts and other chemicals to break apart large hydrocarbons in crude oil into smaller molecules. These can then be chemically reshaped, combined, or purified into useful petroleum products. History of Simple ThingsThe US exported more crude oil and petroleum products than it imported in 2025In fact, the US has been exporting more oil and petroleum products than it imports since August 2021. Petroleum and petroleum product exports totaled about 10.7 million barrels per day, whereas imports totaled about 7.9 million barrels per day. USAFactsChina is the world’s largest importer of crude oilChina is pushing to reduce its reliance on US oil to limit geopolitical vulnerabilities. It’s rapidly becoming the world’s renewable energy superpower. YouTubeHow crude oil is split across oil markets based on geographic originBrent, which originates in the North Sea, West Texas Intermediate, and Dubai are the three crude oil classes and differ in terms of typical refinery uses, density, sulfur content, and suitability for financial benchmarking. Brent is traders' go-to benchmark in part because it's easily shipped, politically stable, and used to price most of the crude sold internationally. Schwab BrokerageCrude oil is the type of oil used to create fuel like gasoline, heating oil, and moreTechnically speaking, crude oil is unrefined petroleum. This article dives into the different ways it’s categorized (by density, sulfur content, and origin), and how the combinations of these types of oil are used. InvestopediaHow microorganisms transformed into crude oil over millions of yearsDespite the misconception that oil comes from dinosaurs, the nonrenewable resource forms when tiny organisms are subjected to high pressure and high temperature while buried under layers of sediment over tens to hundreds of millions of years. During this time, they become a mixture that is almost entirely hydrocarbons, which can be harnessed and refined. Today I Found OutSee where the 100 million barrels of crude oil the world consumes daily end upFrom drilling to driving, crude oil is processed in refineries and transformed into everyday products like fuel, plastics, lubricants, and cosmetics. The US currently uses about 20 million of those barrels per day. HISTORYView the 45 gallons of refined products created from each 42-gallon barrel of crude oilMore than 85% is refined into fuels, such as gasoline and diesel, while about 10% is converted into raw materials for plastics, synthetic rubbers, and other essential products, such as lubricants. Because the majority of these products are less dense than the starting crude oil and additional inputs are introduced during the refining process, there is a processing gain of three gallons. Visual CapitalistWatch how plastic products are molded from pellets that began as crude oilPolyethylene and other plastics are formed by combining ethylene and propylene, which are produced through refining crude oil. These plastics are broken down into pellets called nurdles, or mermaid tears, which are melted and molded to manufacture countless products. FactoraAbout 10% of the world's crude oil and 32% of its natural gas is reached via frackingMost of the world's shale oil resources, which are recoverable via fracking, are found in Russia, the US, China, Argentina, and Libya. The majority of equivalent shale gas resources are found in China, Argentina, Algeria, the US, Canada, and Mexico. US Energy Information AdministrationExplore a timeline of US dependence on crude oil from 1850 to 2023Oil dependence began with the rise of oil as a commodity, followed by an era of geopolitical competition for the resource after World War II. The domestic fracking boom, which started around 2006, was driven by a desire to reduce the nation's dependence on international adversaries for energy. Council on Foreign RelationsHow disruptions in oil markets can drive up the price of everyday goodsMost types of plastic are made from polymers derived from chemicals produced by the processing and refining of crude oil and natural gas. Spikes in the cost of either fossil fuel raise the cost of wrappings, tubs, and other plastic containers for products. ReutersHow microbes limited the damage and helped clean up the Deepwater Horizon oil spillA bloom estimated to contain about 100 sextillion microbial cells broke down much of the 4.1 million barrels of spilled crude oil into nontoxic compounds in what was one of the most significant bioremediations of a human-made disaster. The microbes involved acted similarly to the first patented genetically modified organism in US history: an oil-eating bacterium engineered in 1971. Scientific AmericanAs of 2024, the nation with the largest proven oil reserves is VenezuelaAccording to estimates derived from available geological and engineering data, the South American country possesses about 303 billion barrels of underground crude oil, followed by Saudi Arabia (267.2 billion) and Iran (208.6 billion). Many of the largest reserves are held by members of the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries. Visual CapitalistA case study of how engineers and geologists at Tullow Oil look for oil reservesAn analysis of surface rocks using aerial and satellite imagery can help narrow the search for crude oil by identifying basins where sedimentary layers have compacted—a key process in oil formation. Surveys that look for variations in Earth's gravitational and magnetic fields consistent with specific rock distributions, or that emit sound waves that reflect off rock layers—not unlike sonar underwater—can also help map subsurface geology. Tullow OilThe Standing Rock Sioux led a nationwide protest movement against an oil pipeline crossing their landBeginning in 2016, thousands gathered at the Standing Rock Indian Reservation to block a crude oil pipeline that would run beneath Lake Oahe, the tribe's source of drinking water, and through a Sioux burial ground. The Obama administration halted construction, but Trump revived it weeks after taking office. EBSCOSee how much key commodities are trading for in real timeThis tracker shows the current price of common commodities such as crude oil, lumber, nickel, and many more, as well as how much these prices have fluctuated over the past day, year, week, and month. Trading EconomicsView a breakdown of worldwide oil production since 1900, mostly led by the USWhen analyzing the production of crude oil, shale oil, oil sands, and condensates since the start of the 20th century, Saudi Arabia produced more crude oil only in 1977, from 1979 to 1981, and from 1991 to 2016. Nations such as Iraq and the United Arab Emirates produced much smaller quantities than both Saudi Arabia and the US. Our World in DataWhy have gas prices surged nearly 27% since the Iran war began?Oil passing through the Strait of Hormuz makes up only about 7% of US crude imports. However, crude oil prices account for 51% of the cost of a gallon of gas in the US. US refiners pay the Brent crude futures price, even for domestic drilling. CBS NewsThe US shipped nearly 4 billion barrels of oil abroad in 2024More than half of the US’s oil is exported as the country produces mainly light, sweet crude but has many refineries that handle heavy, sour types. Visual CapitalistOil prices spiked when Russia invaded Ukraine in 2022The price of a barrel of Brent crude experienced volatility in the early 2020s. This chart shows price spikes at the beginning of the pandemic and again when Russia invaded Ukraine. Trading EconomicsFracking has led to an increased global oil supply, contributing to lower oil pricesFracking technology has significantly increased how much crude oil the US produces. As more countries adopt fracking technology, there could be an increased downward pressure on prices—although fracking has been widely criticized for its negative environmental impacts. InvestopediaOil prices have been volatile for decadesThis explainer shows oil’s rollercoaster: OPEC-led embargoes in the 1970s, shale surges in the 2000s, and the US flip to becoming a net oil exporter in 2020. InvestopediaIn 2016 OPEC and 10 major producers—including Russia—launched OPEC+OPEC+ emerged in 2016 when 10 additional producers, including Russia, joined to stabilize markets amid U.S. shale growth. In 2022, OPEC alone supplied 38 % of global crude oil, but combined with OPEC+, output reached nearly 59 % of world production—significantly amplifying its market power. US Energy Information AdministrationIran’s 1979 revolution sparked a second oil shock—and reconfigured global energy marketsWidespread strikes in Iran’s oil sector during the 1978-79 revolution slashed production and triggered panic buying, flooding oil markets with fear. BrookingsOPEC’s 1973 embargo sparked the first global energy shockIn October 1973, Arab OAPEC countries stopped or significantly reduced oil exports to nations backing Israel during the Yom Kippur War. Crude prices nearly quadrupled, sparking global shortages, economic recession, rationing, and major energy policy reforms. InvestopediaThe 1969 Santa Barbara oil spill galvanized the modern environmental movementIn January 1969, an oil platform off the coast of Santa Barbara ruptured, releasing roughly 3 million gallons of crude into the Pacific. The spill killed over 10,000 seabirds, dolphins, and seals, coating 35 miles of coastline. NPRThe ins and outs of oil refining The oil industry is broken up into the upstream, midstream, and downstream segments, and oil refining is part of the latter. “Downstream” refers to companies like Standard Oil that are converting crude oil into a finished product. Investopedia