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DNADeoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, is the molecule that encodes the genetic information of all known living things. Tightly packed into the nucleus of nearly all cells, DNA takes the shape of a double helix—a twisted ladder—with rails made up of stacked sugar-phosphate groups connected by rungs made up of four types of nitrogen-containing bases in pairs. The order of these bases mimics the letters of an alphabet, spelling out genes that carry the instructions for an organism's traits.
DNA was initially called "nuclein" after its discovery in the nuclei of white blood cells in 1869. Although DNA's bases were discovered by the late 1800s, scientists were skeptical that it was a hereditary molecule and viewed proteins, which were made of 20 different building blocks, as more likely to code for the wide variety of observed life. However, by 1952, experiments had shown that bacterial traits changed when they took up DNA rather than proteins, overturning the prevailing wisdom. The following year, DNA's structure was identified, and subsequent observations of how proteins responsible for cellular function are encoded in DNA led to modern genetics.
Advancements in DNA sequencing and editing have enabled breakthrough technologies, including the testing and diagnosis of genetic disorders, disaster victim and forensic identification, genetically engineered crops and microbes for medicines (e.g., insulin production), the detection and tracking of variant pathogens (e.g., influenza), and various gene therapies.Explore DNA
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DNA cassette tapes could store 36,000 terabyte hard drives of dataBy translating binary code into the base-pair code found in genetic sequences, researchers in China are storing digital data on DNA-coated tapes for compact, durable, and energy-efficient storage. The tapes use a blend of polyester and nylon with barcode patterns for data addressing. Popular ScienceEnvironmental DNA monitoring can help detect the presence of invasive speciesGenetic material that organisms deposit into water, soil, or air can be identified by analyzing samples from each environment, allowing land managers to more reliably detect and track organisms than visual surveys alone. eDNA has been used to develop early warning surveillance systems for various invasive marine species. USGSWatch how proteins are created from DNAWhen a DNA sequence—a gene—is activated, a copy of the activated portion is created in the form of RNA, a single-stranded version of DNA, in a process known as transcription. This RNA, called messenger RNA, leaves the nucleus and travels to a ribosome, a structure within a cell, which uses it to build a chain of organic compounds that fold into a protein. yourgenomeThe structure of DNA helices comes in three major varietiesThe hereditary molecule can take the form of A-DNA, B-DNA, or Z-DNA based on environmental conditions such as ion concentration and humidity—a characteristic identified by Rosalind Franklin. A-DNA is the shortest and widest of the three, while Z-DNA is the longest and narrowest. B-DNA—the most common variety in living cells—is the intermediate. ChemTalkStoring data in DNA requires converting binary code into DNA's four-base systemResearchers have suggested that DNA's ability to form compact, dense structures justifies investigating its use for long-term, safe data archiving. This system could fit all of the world's data in a single shoebox, though processing each bit into a nucleotide base takes 2 minutes, as of 2024. ScienceClicRecombinant DNA technology turns microorganisms into protein factoriesGenes for molecules such as insulin can be inserted into loops of bacterial DNA called plasmids and reinserted into bacteria. Once placed in fermentation tanks, these bacteria use the gene to produce these molecules, which are then harvested and purified for eventual use. National Institutes of HealthThe first criminal conviction through the use of DNA evidence was in 1988Chromosomes contain markers where short DNA sequences repeat a variable number of times from person to person. A DNA profile is constructed by identifying the number of repeats across 20 regions throughout a genome, which can be compared against a database. DNA paternity tests work similarly by comparing markers between children and their fathers. (Some readers may experience a paywall.) C&ENAncestry testing matches DNA to known genetic variants found in specific ancestriesAfter a lab receives a person's sample, the DNA is separated into single strands, which are chemically cut into smaller fragments. The fragments are then fed into an array of variants of known origins, and technicians observe if a person's fragments bind to specific variants. NISTGlowing chemicals allow scientists to read DNA like a barcodeThe process of determining the order of nitrogenous bases in DNA involves first cutting the DNA into fragments, which are duplicated multiple times using bacteria. Fluorescently labeled terminator bases are added to fragments, which are sorted by length and read via laser to reconstruct the sequence. yourgenomeOrganisms can possess multiple unique sets of DNA in one bodyGenetic chimeras can result when cells with different DNA combine, such as when two sperm cells fertilize two egg cells, creating two embryos that then merge. In mosaicism, mutations arise within an organism after conception and can spread through cell division, resulting in diseases and forming genetically distinct anatomy. Be SmartRNA may have allowed life to exist before DNAThe emergence of living organisms from non-living matter—abiogenesis—requires both a molecule that encodes genetic information and proteins that perform biochemical processes. However, because DNA and protein depend on one another, some biologists theorize that RNA, which can both store information and perform functions, preceded both and originated life. NOVA PBS OfficialThe DNA in the mitochondria of most animals' cells is only inherited from mothersA study in roundworms showed that this occurs because mitochondria in sperm cells are destroyed during fertilization, potentially due to damage sustained during the exhausting competition with millions of other sperm cells to reach the egg. This allows maternal lineage to be traced across generations through these cell subunits, which produce energy in cells. University of Colorado BoulderBacteria helped scientists realize that DNA was the hereditary molecule, not proteinsUntil the mid-1900s, most scientists believed genes were made of proteins, which were known to act as enzymes, hormones, and other chemicals that mediated an organism's traits. The Avery-MacLeod-McCarty and that benign bacteria could be made lethal, where the inherited factor that caused bacterial transformation contained DNA. The Royal InstitutionOnly 2% of human DNA codes for proteinsThe entire human genome contains about 20,000 protein-coding genes, with the rest having initially been categorized as "junk" DNA. However, research since 2003 suggests that this "dark genome" regulates how protein-coding genes are expressed in response to environmental factors encountered by cells. BBCHalf of human DNA is inherited from each parentWithin most cells reside 23 pairs of chromosomes made of tightly wound DNA, and half of each pair is inherited from each parent. The 23rd pair consists of two X-shaped chromosomes, or one such chromosome paired with a Y chromosome, and determines biological sex. Sano GeneticsChanging a single letter in DNA can permanently alter an organismGenetic mutations occur when cells replicate, which requires a copy of DNA to be created, and involve substituting, deleting, or inserting letters in a cell's genetic code. Mutations can be caused by normal cellular processes, chemical exposure (e.g., carcinogens), or radiation and may result in genetic disorders or genetic variations that drive evolution. Cleveland ClinicWatch DNA replicate itself before cell divisionIn the average adult human, between 50 billion and 70 billion cells die daily, requiring them to replicate their genetic instructions before dividing into new cells. This process relies on various proteins to unwind, read, build, and proofread new strands, with error rates of fewer than one per 1 billion nucleotides. VeritasiumWatch how DNA is packaged to a 10,000th of its original size in a cellIn humans, the 2-meter (6.56-foot) molecule wraps around spool-like proteins called histones, forming beads—nucleosomes—that fold up into fibers. These fibers—chromatin—form loops through folding that compress into larger fibers, which tightly coil together to form a chromosome. BiointeractiveDNA's four-letter blueprint makes the variety of all living things possibleThe proteins responsible for cellular functions and an organism's traits are built outside of a cell's nucleus from RNA—single-stranded molecules created by reading the information in DNA. DNA's double-stranded structure makes it more stable and allows RNA to be made from either of its complementary strands. Stated ClearlySymptoms of DNA loss may mimic those seen in mushroom poisoning or chemotherapyAlthough no organism has ever lost all its DNA, the destroying angel mushroom contains amatoxin, which disrupts DNA transcription and is known to cause death via liver and kidney failure in three days. Doxorubicin, which tangles DNA to disrupt cellular replication, compromises a person's immune system. xkcd's What If?Astronauts have repaired DNA in space using CRISPRThe Genes In Space-6 experiment, conducted aboard the International Space Station, investigated the application of the gene editing tool in microgravity, a crucial experiment for long-duration space travel. The work was done three years after four Minnesota students proposed the experiment as part of a national contest in 2018. Space.comDsup slightly unwinds DNA and changes shape to better cling to the moleculeThe damage suppressor protein, which is exclusively found in tardigrades, has also been modeled as coating DNA and shielding it from radiation and the toxic byproducts of radiation damage. Dsup may become a fundamental ingredient in future DNA storage technologies. The ConversationDsup protects DNA from radiation up to 3,000 times the tolerable human doseA key component of a tardigrade’s biochemical toolkit, the damage suppressor protein is produced and binds to DNA molecules when the animal enters its dormant tun state. Dsup has provided a 50% reduction in double-strand DNA breaks in mice after exposure to X-rays. MIT NewsDNA computing allows for storage and processing of massive amounts of data Although costly and less efficient for simpler tasks, as of 2025, DNA could hold 455 exabytes of data with near limitless parallel computation potential in small data centers. Every movie ever made would fit inside the volume of a single sugar cube. PluralsightThe woman erased from the DNA breakthroughRosalind Franklin captured “Photo 51,” the key to DNA’s double helix. Her data, shared without her knowledge, helped Watson and Crick win a Nobel. She never got the prize, but today, her role in unlocking life’s blueprint is finally recognized. 1440Exercise changes your genes without changing your DNAPhysical activity can turn beneficial genes on and harmful genes off, without altering the underlying DNA code. This engaging article explains the epigenetic mechanisms that take place with exercise and ultimately result in improved metabolism, lower inflammation, and optimized brain function. Science Connected MagazineBeyond DNA, Franklin's legacy extends into modern virology and steel productionWhile remembered for her critical but under-credited role in uncovering parameters for the structure of DNA, Rosalind Franklin made significant contributions across coal chemistry and virus structure. Her research helped improve fuel efficiency, wartime protective equipment, and foundational knowledge in molecular biology. NatureNature simultaneously published three papers on DNA—only the first made historyPapers by Watson and Crick, Wilkins, and Franklin were fast-tracked without peer review, and their order was arranged between lab heads and editors. Franklin's appeared last, making her paper read as though supporting Watson and Crick—because they'd already incorporated her data before it was published. NatureWatson and Crick revealed DNA's double-helix structure using others' key findingsTheir 1953 model, made from cardboard cutouts, explained how DNA stores genetic information through base pairing. Rather than experimenting and collecting their own data, they incorporated patterns and data from other scientists through trial and error. NatureThe lack of diversity in DNA databases limits their applicationsEuropean ancestry dominates genetic research, hindering the usage of genetic databases for precision medicine for other groups, including African Americans, who face higher health risks due to genetic variants. Many Indigenous communities have also resisted genetic research due to past exploitation. (Some readers may experience a paywall.) Science NewsSee the history of DNA sequencingDNA sequencing evolved from manual methods to automated, high-throughput technologies. The Human Genome Project was possible in the first generation of gene sequencing technology with the "chain termination method," which won developer Fredrick Sanger a Nobel Prize. The DNA UniverseDrs. Jennifer Doudna and Emmanuelle Charpentier discuss CRISPRJennifer Doudna and Emmanuelle Charpentier's were awarded the 2020 Nobel Prize for research focused on understanding and adapting the CRISPR-Cas9 system to precisely edit DNA sequences in other organisms. Doudna has indicated that the system can potentially treat genetic forms of blindness and high cholesterol. TED Audio CollectiveCRISPR is a gene-editing tool that lets scientists cut out and replace damaged DNAOriginally a bacterial defense system against viruses, CRISPR uses guide RNA and a protein called Cas9 to identify and cut specific DNA sequences. Scientists can repurpose this system to switch off faulty genes, insert new ones to treat genetic diseases, or modify organs grown in other animals so that they appear less foreign to a human immune system. TED-Ed The oldest DNA recovered so far is 2 million years oldThe oldest DNA recovered so far is about 2 million years old and has given scientists an unadulterated peek into ancient history. This nine-minute video explores the findings and implications of the DNA, which was pulled from frozen soil in... YouTubeYour DNA may determine whether you like coffee or teaWhether people prefer coffee or tea may boil down to a matter of taste genetics. People with a version of a gene that increases sensitivity to the bitter flavor of caffeine tend to be coffee drinkers, according to a report. Read on for more. Science NewsThe 4% DNA difference between humans and chimpsOn the genetic level, we’re not all that different from chimps. But those small differences in DNA can have huge effects. This 11-minute video digs in to the topic. YouTubeThe limits of ancestry DNA tests, explained23andMe wants to sell you vacations based on your DNA. But what are they really basing that on? VoxHere’s different ways DNA can mutateGet a definition of the types of DNA mutations, including point mutations, frame shift mutations, insertions, and deletions. ThoughtCoNeanderthal DNA may increase the risk of severe COVID-19People in South Asia and Europe are more likely to carry a genetic heirloom from Neandertals linked to susceptibility to the coronavirus. Science NewsScientists can suck animal DNA from the airA look at how researchers filtered the air around two zoos and identified genetic material from dozens of species, a technique that could help track and conserve wildlife. WiredWhy your dog’s DNA isn’t destinyDNA tests tell people about their pet’s breed and attempt to predict things about its behavior and health. But for all that these tests might provide some interesting results, they need to be taken with caution. Here's a look at what we can and can't learn from our pets' DNA. Science News ExploresTesting your DNA? Here’s how different methods workLots of companies will now test DNA from people and their pets. How do these gene-sequencing techniques work? We explain. Science News ExploresThe average cell's DNA is damaged thousands of times dailyIn the case of radiation-induced distortions in a DNA strand, specialized proteins can cut out entire segments and rebuild them using the second strand as a complementary template. If both DNA strands are completely severed, proteins interlace undamaged DNA with the severed DNA and rebuild both using complementary base pairing. TED-EdA fascinating look at how our DNA is built and replicatedThis easy-to-understand 13-minute video dives into the wondrous molecule deoxyribonucleic acid – also known as DNA – and explains how it replicates itself in our cells. YouTubeSynthetic biology transforms cells into custom DNA foundriesAt companies like Ginkgo Bioworks, researchers are reprogramming cells to act as workshops that can create custom molecules, such as medicines and fertilizers, by stitching together DNA sequences—often in novel combinations—before inserting them into an organism's genome. SeekerVisualization of printing synthetic DNAEver wonder how synthetic DNA is made? Discover how GenScript uses innovative technology to synthesize precise, high-quality DNA at a larger scale than ever before. YouTubeAncient skeletons, funerary practices, and DNA reveal layers of inequality in past societiesAncient skeletons, funerary practices, and DNA reveal layers of inequality in past societies. Massachusetts Institute of TechnologyDNA carries the unique instructions that shape how each person grows and functionsThe human genome contains over six billion DNA letters, organized into 46 chromosomes inherited from both parents. Genes—sections of DNA—serve as templates for making proteins, and variations in these sequences can affect how our bodies work or respond to the environment. Garvan Institute of Medical ResearchGenetic tests aren't always actionable, which is one reason genetic counselors are so vitalThis podcast interview with a Harvard Medical School professor focused on cancer genetics and prevention discusses the specifics of genetic testing and insights and the challenges of processing the outcomes of the testing and what may be actionable—or not. WebMD Health DiscoveredVisualize how CRISPR works at the molecular levelCRISPR is a revolutionary gene-editing technology already making a real-world impact in helping to treat several diseases and conditions. This simulation provides a microscopic view to help easily visualize the complex science. Howard Hughes Medical Institute
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