Carl Jung proposed the controversial idea of the 'collective unconscious'—all humans share a common psychic realm.

Jungian archetypes can reveal personality traits

Swiss psychologist Carl Jung argued that we’re drawn to familiar character types—such as heroes, caregivers, or rebels—because they reflect universal archetypes embedded in the human subconscious. He believed these patterns shape behavior, motivation, and personal growth.

Panpsychism suggests that all matter possesses consciousness

The theory describes consciousness as a fundamental, ubiquitous property, rather than separate or emerging from matter. Cosmopsychism posits that the universe is conscious, while some critics argue that consciousness itself may be an illusion.

What is Freud's idea of the unconscious?

The unconscious has become a widely used term, but Freud meant something quite specific. Here's a look into his technical use of the term.

Famed psychologist Sigmund Freud believed dreams were symbolic expressions of desire.

The dreaming brain, as understood by scientists

Technology has advanced to where the seemingly separate fields of psychology and neuroscience are asking the same questions about dreams, such as whether they're more closely related to perception or visualization. Some field-intersecting findings include research that shows people with impaired face perception don't dream of faces, those with brain legion-related cognition difficulties deal with similar issues in dreams, and children's dreams change in parallel to their cognitive development.

Why mythologist Joseph Campbell loved 'Star Wars'

Joseph Campbell, the literature professor who wrote about the power of mythology, suggested that "Star Wars" was a powerful modern myth that used classic archetypes to communicate a universal message.

Could all mental health disorders have a unifying 'p-factor'?

Some researchers have argued in the past couple decades that all mental health disorders may have a unifying dimension—a theoretical "p-factor" that is common across mental illness, but life experiences and behaviors influence if and how illness manifests. Proponents point to similarities across different disorders, while detractors argue that such connections are largely exaggerated.

The ideas of Einstein and Freud combined in 'The Persistence of Memory'

The Persistence of Memory was painted on a canvas roughly the size of a sheet of paper, depicting a desolate landscape with melting clocks, ants, and a distorted figure. The piece incorporates Freud and Einstein's ideas, resulting in a haunting composition symbolizing time's fluidity and Dalí's personal anxieties.

Dreams have long been used for religious and political power.

Studies of psychedelic use may help shed light on the nature of consciousness

The nature of consciousness—what it is, where it comes from, and how it manifests as moment-to-moment experience—remains under debate by scientists. Recent studies show psychedelics were found to boost low-frequency brain signals known as delta waves, a behavior also seen during dream states.

Wilhelm Wundt, the forgotten father of modern psychology

He was the first psychologist to call himself one, and he influenced a whole generation of early psychologists. Learn about the life and works of Wilhelm Wundt with this thorough entry from a philosophy encyclopedia.

Existentialism has been used as a therapeutic tool

Psychologists became interested in existentialism in the 1940s, with two Swiss psychiatrists—Ludwig Binswanger and Medard Boss—particularly taken with Martin Heidegger’s “Being and Time.” The existential approach to therapy emphasized a patient’s personhood and experiences, using them to help that patient face their problems head-on.

Pareidolia, the cognitive bias that leads people to find meaning in randomness, helps explain why humans look for meaning in their dreams and even in their tea leaves.

Noam Chomsky believed it might be possible to communicate with aliens

The father of modern linguistics argued that there is a genetic component to language, and that the ability to acquire and comprehend language is innate. If aliens existed, he believed they could potentially observe the same "universal grammar" rules as humans.

Core memories are a popularized version of autobiographical memories

Core memories are not limited to five key events, do not individually shape personality traits, and are not formed in childhood. Our strongest memories are formed in early adulthood, but are as prone to error as any other memory.

Humans experience the world subjectively. What does that mean for scientific research?

When you close your eyes, do you see static or colorful patterns or an "intrinsic grey" known as Eigengrau in German? This variation of our internal experiences is just the tip of the iceberg, one that scientists are increasingly studying and...

Sleep is often viewed individually, when its impact and meaning may be more communal

At any given point, roughly 2 billion people may be asleep on Earth. The typical scientific description of sleep focuses on its individual impact, but the phenomenon shapes whole cultures and eons. This essay prompts a fresh rethinking of the importance of sleep for humanity.

John Steinbeck's philosophical ideas, which he often explored in his novels, wrestled with the role of the individual and the power of community.

Unpacking 'Night Journey,' Martha Graham's take on a Greek myth

The dance piece was inspired by the story of Oedipus, as well as by more contemporary psychoanalytic theories from Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung. This JSTOR article explores how Graham's show merged those texts with her singular approach to movement to explore gender and identity.

Browse and explore dozens of major psychology theories

There are a ton of different psych theories—so here's a breakdown of some of the major ones according to the general psychological focus.

Freud and Jung were once friends. What drove them to break up?

Austrian psychologist Sigmund Freud and Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung were fast friends, immediately hitting it off the first time they met in 1907. This four-minute video dives into the intellectual divide that drove them apart.

The term schizophrenia was coined by Swiss psychiatrist Eugen Bleuler in 1908

He launched the word during a lecture at the German Psychiatric Association in Berlin. In his talk he focused on the splitting of psychic functioning as a defining feature of the disease and noted it wasn't associated with dementia or factors like early puberty onset.

The universe may have been reborn from a state of emptiness

Some physicists propose the universe might be the latest in an eternal cycle of universes, each emerging from the empty remains of the one before. This model is inspired partly by Norse and Egyptian myth, suggesting the universe is a cosmic ouroboros—a self-consuming serpent representing an eternal return.

Psychology research shows that conspiracy theorists tend to have a desire to be unique

While conspiracy theorists are often understood to have feelings of powerlessness in their lives, research suggests they may also be inclined to set themselves apart from the masses.

The Maya believed every person is born with a spirit companion

In Maya belief, each person is linked to a spirit or animal companion associated with one of the 20 sacred calendar day signs. Enter your birthday and discover your companion, which is believed to reflect your personality traits.

Like fingerprints, brain anatomy is unique too

Researchers have discovered that a combination of experiences and genetic factors shape the anatomy of the human brain. They found even quick experiences affect the brain’s genetic makeup, which—over time—means every person develops a completely unique brain anatomy. While brain imaging could be used to identify individuals, it remains much more expensive than fingerprinting for now. Read to found out more about this study from the University of Zurich.

Aliens have invaded ancient history

Avid fans of archaeology can sometimes fall prey to unsubstantiated claims like "aliens built the pyramids," provocative, dubious theories which fall under the category of pseudo-archaeology. Many of these claims are premised on hidden biases toward non-Western cultural heritages. This professor explores the hidden contours of pseudo-archaeology in this 12-minute TED talk.

The science behind ghosts, explored

Every culture has them—restless spirits, haunted houses, things that go bump in the night. But why do we believe in ghosts? Psychologist and skeptic Dr. Chris French joins host Sony Kassam to explore the science behind the supernatural, from sleep paralysis and hallucinations to the brain’s pattern-making instincts.

JJ Schildkraut theorized depression is linked to brain chemical imbalances—in 1965

Schildkraut was one of the first to put forward this idea, which stemmed from lab animal research. A decade later, researchers published the first landmark paper on fluoxetine—better known by trade name Prozac—which increases serotonin levels in the brain.

In the 'block universe' model, the past, present, and future exist simultaneously

According to special relativity, observers do not experience the same events in the same order, but all perspectives are valid. This means what is considered one person's as yet unexperienced future may have already taken place in someone else's past.

JRR Tolkien and CS Lewis met at Oxford and bonded over Norse mythology

The “Lord of the Rings” mastermind and “The Lion, Witch, and the Wardrobe” author were colleagues at Oxford University and shared an appreciation for Norse mythology, which continues to inform the fantasy genre. They were also a part of the same informal literary group, the Inklings, where they’d discuss one another’s works-in-progress.

An LSD scientist's role in a US mind control project

Within a decade of LSD's discovery, the US government had launched a secret initiative involving hypnosis and hallucinogens. LSD researcher Louis Jolyon West conducted experiments for the CIA's MKUltra project, which focused on the potential of mind control. He later took part in a criminal trial that hinged on testimony whose sourcing was seemingly inspired by MKUltra experiments. This article explores light shed by West's personal archive.

Visualizing 11 cognitive biases that influence how you think

Humans are hardwired to make mental mistakes called cognitive biases, affecting the way we view our world. Among the most common are confirmation bias (seeking only evidence that affirms your views), authority bias (overweighting things said by authority figures), groupthink (assimilating ideas to avoid conflict), and more. This quick chart gives an overview of some of the most notable ways we mislead ourselves.

Problem solving, problem recognition, and learning ability makes up intelligence

Psychologists have several theories from which the concept of intelligence is explained, including general and multiple intelligences. Although IQ is used to quantify intelligence, issues like its cultural biases have spurred debate.

What is psychoanalysis?

This nine-minute video, the first of a four-part series, seeks to answer the questions: what is psychoanalysis, and is it weird? The answer to the latter question is overwhelmingly yes. The answer to the first question is a bit...

Learn about the neuroscience and psychology of why we crave comfort foods

The term was coined in 1966, when psychologist Joyce Brothers suggested humans turn to food associated with the feelings of comfort from their childhoods when experiencing emotional distress. Since then, studies have shown that the familiarity, reliability, and convenience of certain foods from one's upbringing can become tied to feelings of nostalgia.

'Imagination is more important than knowledge. For knowledge is limited, whereas imagination embraces the entire world.'

- Albert Einstein

The 'overview effect' heightens one's sense of unity and connectedness

Coined by space philosopher Frank White in 1987, the term refers to the paradigm-shifting experience a person undergoes upon viewing Earth from space. Commercial spaceflights aim to bring this perspective to a broader audience, inspiring changes in behavior and worldview among participants.

Various types of memory, each serving unique functions, create a complex brain system

These forms of memory, which can overlap in daily life, have been sorted into broad categories, such as short-term and long-term memory, and subtypes such as implicit memory, which uses saved information without conscious awareness that it’s being recalled.

Some art critics believe that Liminalism, a form of art exploring the uncanny yet familiar, defines our present moment

While analyzing images of abandoned malls or empty hallways, art historians and critics argue that this style captures the feelings of this moment in time. Liminalism, they propose, expresses prominent themes in our age like anonymity, alienation, and anxiety.

Meet the psychologist who reads people through the art they live with

Dimitrios Tsivrikos, an academic psychologist at University College London, says the art someone hangs in their home reveals as much about them as a bookshelf would. He advises going on a first date at a museum and asking each other about the work on the walls.

Albert Camus believed existence was 'absurd'

He didn't use "absurd" as we often do—meaning something silly—but instead to describe humans' desire to ascribe meaning and transcendence in a world that provided neither. Camus believed we needed to acknowledge and accept this absurdity rather than hopelessly believing we'd one day overcome it.

Why 'spacing out' or dissociating may help reduce trauma awareness

Dissociation may have developed as a defense mechanism in the brain to help navigate intense emotional or physical situations by providing out-of-body experiences that put distance between the mind and the environment. However, in about 1.1% and 1.5% percent of the general population, a severe form of this separation can produce alternate identities, or alters.

Twain claimed to possess 'mental telegraphy'

In an 1891 essay, the writer claimed to possess psychic powers. It’s something that seemingly supported by his mother and his own death: Twain predicted he would die the day after Halley’s Comet returned in 1910, which did indeed happen.

How does someone become the ‘voice of a generation’?

From modern authors like Sally Rooney and JD Salinger, to the 19th century Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, the concept of artists voicing a generation's sentiments goes way back. Read this analysis to understand the concept's history and uncover the potential issues with generalizing a generation's feelings.

'Those who dream by day are cognizant of many things which escape those who dream only by night.'

- Edgar Allan Poe (1809-1849) in "Elenora"

The theory of plate tectonics first emerged from the theory of continental drift

German meteorologist Alfred Wegener proposed that the continents were all one giant landmass in the past, which he named Pangaea. Despite geological and climate evidence suggesting continental movement, his theory was dismissed until the 1960s.

Color originates from the brain processing light of varying wavelengths

Various geometric models, including Newton's color circle of hue and saturation and the horseshoe-shaped XYZ space for mixing colors via vector mathematics, have been proposed to describe colors accurately. However, these models do not encapsulate the variety of psychological effects that cause perceived colors to differ from mathematical representations.

Genetic analysis indicates that every organism on Earth evolved from a single cell

LUCA—the last universal common ancestor—lived about 4.2 billion years ago and likely obtained energy through the conversion of carbon dioxide and hydrogen gas consumed from atmospheric gases at the ocean's surface or hydrothermal vents—openings on the seafloor where fluid warmed and enriched with minerals by Earth's interior is expelled.

Our ancient fight-or-flight response may contribute to modern ailments

Many common modern diseases humans struggle with may in fact have their origins in our ancient fight-or-flight stress response. Long-term effects of the stress hormones cortisol and adrenaline—in this case, triggered by things like workplace stressors—can wreak havoc on the delicate internal balance of our organ systems.