Extremophiles, Radioactivity, and the Internet

What are extremophiles?

Extremophiles are organisms that flourish in environments lethal to most living things. Unlike extremotolerant organisms, which can temporarily withstand conditions such as frigid temperatures or high acidity, extremophiles have adapted to them and often cannot survive outside such environments. Since their discovery in the 1960s, extremophiles have reframed what scientists understood to be the requirements for life, expanding the extent of Earth's biosphere and the list of places where astrobiologists search for life in the cosmos (watch explainer).

Extremophiles are classified according to the seemingly deadly circumstances they prefer for their habitats (view breakdown). Thermophiles live in scorching environments, such as hot springs and areas near underwater volcanoes, but psychrophiles prefer glaciers, permafrost, and deep-sea waters. Halophiles thrive in very salty locations, while acidophiles and alkaliphiles can survive in high- and low-acidity waters, respectively. Among the most impressive organisms are polyextremophiles that can live in multiple extremes, such as Deinococcus radiodurans, which has survived in outer space.

Extremophiles' capabilities largely stem from their possession of extremozymes—proteins that facilitate critical biochemical processes in unconventional environments. These biocatalysts have been used in similar industrial settings, including biofuel production, food processing, and pharmaceutical manufacturing, to reduce the reliance on more harmful methods. They also provide an eco-friendly means of cleaning up radioactive or chemically contaminated sites (learn more).

Learn even more by exploring all our findings on Extremophiles here.

Here's a sample of what we found ...

> Pollution in New York City created extremophiles hungry for "black mayonnaise." (Listen)

> Halophiles turned the northern half of the Great Salt Lake a vibrant pink. (Watch)

> A thermophile at Yellowstone National Park transformed medical diagnostics. (Read)

> How do rock-loving extremophiles survive inside Earth's crust? (Watch)

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Radioactivity, explained

Radioactivity refers to the sudden ejection of particles from an unstable atomic nucleus. This instability arises from an imbalance in the forces holding protons and neutrons together at the center of an atom, leading to excess energy (watch explainer). By ejecting particles with this energy—a process called radioactive decay—the atomic nucleus becomes stabilized. These energetic particles comprise ionizing radiation, which, like gamma rays, X-rays, and high-energy UV light, can break chemical bonds and damage DNA (learn more).

The phenomenon was accidentally discovered by Henri Becquerel in 1896, when he noticed that uranium salts emitted radiation. Two years later, Marie and Pierre Curie coined the term "radioactivity" when studying similar radiation-emitting ores. After Ernest Rutherford and Frederick Soddy observed that radioactive thorium changed into radium, they theorized that radioactivity could transform one element into another. By 1903, Rutherford distinguished the three most common types of radioactive decay—alpha, beta, and gamma—and found that radioactive samples decay in a predictable, exponential way based on a value specific to the sample that he called half-life.

Subsequent research revealed the composition of these decay particles, alongside the existence of isotopes, protons, and neutrons. Collectively, these discoveries established the physics behind radiometric dating, nuclear power, and medical diagnostics and treatment, and more.

Learn even more by exploring all our findings on Radioactivity here.

Here's a sample of what we found ... 

> The story of the Radium Girls, who exposed the dangers of radioactive paint. (Listen)

> Smoke detectors are among the everyday objects that rely on radioactivity. (View)

> Does taking iodine really protect you from radiation? (Read)

> See the most radioactive places on Earth and learn who is most exposed. (Watch)

Internet, 101

The internet is the infrastructure connecting over 20 billion devices across public and private networks worldwide. Although the term "internet" is commonly used to refer to where users browse sites, check email, and engage in other online activities, these services run atop this underlying infrastructure (watch explainer). Through these web services, the internet provides about three-quarters of the world's population with access to information, communication, entertainment, and platforms for commerce, healthcare, and banking.

The internet was made possible by standardizing protocols developed by its predecessor, ARPANET. This was a network of research institutions that shared information and computing resources during the Cold War and tested methods to improve network efficiency and resilience as network connections increased. Among the adopted protocols were TCP/IP, a universal communication language between software and hardware systems, and the Domain Name System, which translates text-based website addresses into numeric addresses to make navigation more user-friendly.

By the 1990s, privatization transitioned the government-funded network infrastructure into one controlled by internet service providers. The rise of cloud computing and the Internet of Things contributed to the emergence of cloud platforms, which, alongside ISPs, now manage most data centers, fiber optics, undersea cables, modems, and other hardware that make up the internet.

Learn even more by exploring all our findings on the Internet here.

Here's a sample of what we found ...

> Humans consume about 1.2 billion years of online content every year. (View)

> HTTP, SMTP, DHCP: A nontechnical overview of the software protocols supporting the internet. (Watch)

> See the world's first website and learn the origin of the World Wide Web. (Read)

> How do governments control and restrict internet access? (Watch)

Science Spotlight

Like all great scientists, we love spending time researching the latest scientific breakthroughs, tech releases, engaging explainers, and the connections between science and society that are making headlines. Here's what we found this week.

> SphereX mission maps 'interstellar glaciers'

NASA | Staff. The all-sky spectral survey identified water, carbon dioxide, and carbon monoxide ices attached to the surface of tiny dust particles in clouds spanning hundreds of light-years within regions of the Milky Way. Researchers believe these ice reservoirs are where most of the universe’s water is formed and stored. (Read)

> Creating light inside the human body using ultrasound

Stanford Report | Laura Castañón. Researchers created light-emitting nanoparticles that are injected into the bloodstream to reach targeted tissues, where they can be activated by focused ultrasound waves. The technique may facilitate less-invasive light-based treatments, such as those used to modify neural signals, stimulate cell growth, and treat some cancers. (Read | Learn about Light)

> Mass of the particle behind the weak nuclear force measured with ultraprecision

MIT News | Jennifer Chu. Scientists have determined the mass of the W boson, one of two particles that drive radioactive decay, by analyzing more than 1 billion proton-colliding events produced by the Large Hadron Collider. This new mass is in agreement with the Standard Model, the most successful theory of particle physics. (Read | Learn about the Standard Model)

> Largest-scale probe of gravity to date strengthens the case for dark matter

Penn Today | Nathi Magubane. Tracking the motion of distant galaxy clusters showed gravity behaving the same way on vast cosmic scales as it does on Earth. The results challenging alternative theories that suggest gravity changes at large distances, which would eliminate the need for cosmological models that include large amounts of unseen dark matter. (Read | Learn about Dark Matter)

> Extremophiles: Search for psychrophilic microorganisms in Antarctica. (Explore)

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Best of the Week

We curate hundreds of resources into 1440 Topics each week. Here are some of our favorites from the world of science and technology.

Read:

> It's already lethal to dogs, but how much chocolate would it take to kill a human?

> Like the Earth, different parts of the sun spin at different rates.
> Some animals use a ringlike network of cells to develop a sense of direction.
> How underwater volcanoes contributed to past marine extinctions.

> ... and how synthetic biology can edit plant and animal genes to fight extinction.

> The story of radio astronomy, from its accidental origin to its potential future on the moon.

> In honor of Earth Day tomorrow, check out some tips for recycling laptops, cell phones, and other electronic waste.

Watch:

> Learn how scientists create and transport antimatter.

> How 3D printing solid-state batteries can improve energy sustainability.

> Spanning twice the distance from Florida to California, a look at how supermountains may have sparked complex life on Earth.

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