Good morning. It's Tuesday, April 14, and welcome to this week's Science & Technology newsletter. First time reading? Sign up here or click here to share with friends. |
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Despite being almost 30% (!!!) of the way through 2026, the team continues to work its way through the suggested topics we received from readers last year, including this week's three deep dives.
To start, we'll explore neutron stars, the densest directly observable objects in the universe, and the origin of some of the jewelry you may be wearing right now. Then, we'll break down photosynthesis, the foundation from which almost all of the energy in our food originates. Finally, we'll look at Linux, one of the world's most important computer programs, which you might be using right now without realizing it.
Let us know what you think! Whether it's feedback on our email format, a comment on this week's topics, suggestions for future coverage, or something else, we're happy to hear from readers. You can get in touch by simply replying to this email.
—Marco Daniel Machado, 1440 Science & Technology Section Editor |
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Neutron stars, 101
Neutron stars are the remnants of stars that began their lives with a mass between eight and 20 times that of the sun. They form after a giant star exhausts the fuel in its core, which sustains nuclear reactions that prevent it from caving in under its own gravity. Without this support, the Earth-sized core collapses, and electrons collide into protons, creating a sphere of neutrons about 20 kilometers (12.5 miles) wide (watch explainer). Neutron production also creates neutrinos—the most abundant matter particles in the universe—which blast away the layers surrounding the core in a powerful supernova.
The existence of neutron stars and the core-collapse supernova mechanism were predicted by Walter Baade and Fritz Zwicky in 1934, two years after the discovery of the neutron. Thirty-three years later, Jocelyn Bell Burnell first observed a neutron star from its pulsing radio signals. These are generated by the magnetic fields of pulsars—neutron stars that rotate up to hundreds of times per second—and sweep across space like a lighthouse beam. The signals have since served as probes to detect exoplanets—including the first two—and test general relativity.
Despite a density equivalent to the mass of Mount Everest in the volume of a sugar cube, neutron stars avoid gravity crushing them completely using a type of quantum pressure called neutron degeneracy. However, if two neutron stars combine, they can overcome this pressure and create a black hole in a kilonova explosion, which forges many of the universe's heavy elements, including gold, platinum, and uranium (learn how).
Learn even more by exploring all our findings on Neutron Stars here.
Here's a sample of what we found ...
> The inside of neutron stars may form various shapes of "nuclear pasta," including spaghetti and lasagna. (Watch)
> In 1992, the first exoplanet was discovered using signals from a pulsar. (Read)
> Hear the sounds of radio signals emitted by pulsars. (Listen)
> A gallery of neutron stars captured by one of NASA's Great Observatories. (View) |
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Photosynthesis, explained
Photosynthesis is a set of processes that plants, algae, and some bacteria use to convert light energy into chemical energy stored within organic compounds. The most common type—oxygenic photosynthesis—consumes carbon dioxide and water to produce oxygen and sugars such as glucose, the primary source of energy in cells. Photosynthesis has produced almost all of Earth's atmospheric oxygen, helps regulate the planet's carbon cycle, and supplies the energy that underlies most food chains (learn more).
Within cellular subunits called chloroplasts, photosynthesis primarily occurs in two stages. In light-dependent reactions, light is absorbed by chlorophyll and other pigments while water is decomposed to produce energy-carrying molecules and release oxygen (watch underwater example).
In the Calvin cycle, RuBisCO—the most abundant protein on Earth—attaches carbon dioxide to a molecule called RuBP to create two, three-carbon molecules. The energetic molecules from the previous stage are then consumed to produce the building blocks of sugars. RuBP is also regenerated to restart the cycle, which runs six times to yield one glucose molecule (watch explainer).
Although these processes are impaired by rising temperatures, drought, and microplastics, some plants have evolved adaptations to cope with challenging environments, including leaf structures that enhance RuBisCO efficiency. Meanwhile, research is ongoing to develop artificial photosynthesis systems and improve photosynthesis for greater crop yields.
Learn even more by exploring all our findings on Photosynthesis here.
Here's a sample of what we found ...
> The world's photosynthetic activity can be seen from space. (Watch)
> Photosynthesis is the reason most plants look green. (Read)
> A look at the bacteria that perform photosynthesis without using water. (Watch)
> How would our lives be different if humans could photosynthesize? (Watch) |
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What is Linux?
Linux is the kernel—a program that manages hardware resources for software applications—in operating systems collectively called Linux distributions, or distros. Due to its versatility, stability, performance, and ease of use, the free, open-source kernel powers billions of machines, including routers, Chromebooks, smart devices, and Android phones. Over half of all web servers, about 90% of all cloud workloads, and all 500 of the world's fastest supercomputers run on Linux.
In 1991, dissatisfied with the limitations of existing operating systems like Windows 3.0, 21-year-old Linus Torvalds set out to create his own as a hobby project using tools from the GNU Project. The project had been developing components for a free, nonproprietary OS since 1983, but lacked a kernel. Torvalds created Linux and released it under the GNU General Public License in 1992, allowing users to freely modify and share it. Developer communities then combined these components to create GNU/Linux distros and continued to expand the kernel's capabilities in the years that followed (learn more).
The prepackaging of computers with Windows and macOS has long stifled the adoption of Linux by end users. However, no licensing fees, faster security patches, and the ability to customize them to specific needs and hardware limitations have made distros popular among enterprise customers. Today, Microsoft, Intel, IBM, Google, Samsung, and others invest in Linux development and contribute to the kernel to ensure it supports new hardware and software.
Learn even more by exploring all our findings on Linux here.
Here's a sample of what we found ...
> A crisis over managing Linux versions led to GitHub, the world's largest host of software development projects. (Watch)
> Steve Jobs tried to end development on Linux by offering Linus Torvalds a job. (Read)
> Why is Linux's mascot a penguin named Tux? (Read)
> If anyone can view and edit Linux's source code, how can it be secure? (Watch) |
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Like all great scientists, we love spending time researching the latest scientific breakthroughs, tech releases, engaging explainers, and the connections between science and society that are making headlines. Here's what we found this week.
> A new branch of life has been uncovered in the deep sea
Discover Magazine | Rosie McCall. Taxonomists have named 24 species of amphipods—small crustaceans that resemble shrimp—extracted from sediments collected in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone near Hawaii, including one whose anatomy places it outside all three existing superfamilies in the infraorder Hadziida. (Read)
> Since 1990, US greenhouse gas emissions have caused $10T in global damage
Stanford University | Josie Garthwaite. The result comes from a new framework for calculating harms from climate change, including those that countries can't prevent by cutting emissions today. It suggests that economic damage yet to come from carbon dioxide emitted decades ago will far exceed the harm already wrought. (Read) | Learn about greenhouse gases by exploring our write-up and findings here.
> Inkjet printers can now print color using silicon crystals instead of ink
Kobe University | Staff. Traditional pigments or dyes absorb certain wavelengths of light and reflect others, producing color on paper. This method involves nontoxic, sustainably sourced structures that can scatter light to create structural colors, which don't fade over time and may improve anticounterfeiting technologies. (Read)
> Lasers turn natural leather into microsupercapacitors for wearable electronics
Optica | Staff. Researchers at Jilin University have developed an eco-friendly process for writing conductive patterns onto vegetable-tanned leather, turning it into a flexible electrical storage device. The technology can contribute to the development of smart clothing or electronic accessories that would not rely on rigid batteries. (Read) | Learn about lasers by exploring our write-up and findings here.
> From 2014 to 2022, global light pollution has increased by 16%
El País | Miguel Ángel Criado. About 1.16 million satellite images identified the greatest contributions to this increase coming from locations in China and India, where extensive industrial development and rapid urban growth have occurred. Decreases in light pollution were also observed in Europe, suggesting the success of energy-saving mandates and increased environmental awareness. (Read) | Learn about light by exploring our write-up and findings here. |
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