Good morning. It's Tuesday, April 28, and welcome to this week's Science & Technology newsletter. First time reading? Sign up here or click here to share with friends. |
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The ongoing war in Iran has made headlines like this one about helium shortages all the more common in recent weeks. To help explain where this element comes from, why it's so valuable, and how we use it, we're starting this week's newsletter with a deep dive on helium.
Speaking of headlines, after scientists reported that an exception in the Montreal Protocol may delay the healing of the planet's ozone layer, we thought it best to break down the landmark international treaty behind the recovery. Finally, with NASA turning off another part of Voyager 1, we're taking a look at the mission behind the most distant human-made objects ever built.
Let us know what you think! Whether it's feedback on our email format, a comment on this week's topics, suggestions for future coverage, or something else, we're happy to hear from readers. You can get in touch by simply replying to this email.
—Marco Daniel Machado, 1440 Science & Technology Section Editor |
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Almost Weightless, Not Worthless |
Helium, 101
Helium is the second-lightest element in the universe and the second most abundant, accounting for about one-quarter of all visible matter by mass. The bulk of helium was formed in the moments after the Big Bang, but it has since been produced in the cores of about 90% of stars by fusing hydrogen (see visualization). In fact, helium is named after the Greek god of the sun—Helios—after it was identified in 1868 via a then-unfamiliar spectral signature in sunlight.
Like other noble gases, helium has a complete outermost shell of electrons around its nucleus, making it largely chemically unreactive. This property makes it an invaluable shield in chemically sensitive processes, such as semiconductor fabrication, fiber optic manufacturing, and arc welding. Because it remains liquid at extremely low temperatures, helium is used as a coolant for superconducting magnets in various scientific equipment, including MRI scanners and particle accelerators. Famously, it also provides buoyancy for weather and party balloons alike and changes one's voice if breathed in (learn why).
Beneath Earth's surface, underground deposits of helium produced by radioactive elements can be harvested during natural gas extraction (learn how). However, because of its lightness, any that escapes to Earth's atmosphere gets lost to space, contributing to its status as a nonrenewable resource.
Learn even more by exploring all our findings on Helium here.
Here's a sample of what we found ...
> Trying to freeze helium creates a superfluid that can climb up walls. (Watch)
> Heliox—a helium-oxygen mixture—helps prevent deep ocean divers from getting drunk on normal air. (Read)
> Helium on the moon might be the key to clean energy from nuclear fusion. (Watch)
> Is helium actually running out? (Listen) |
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Something the World Agreed On |
What is the Montreal Protocol?
The Montreal Protocol, established in 1987, is a landmark international treaty aimed at phasing out and banning substances that break apart ozone molecules. These molecules, which make up the ozone layer, block about 98% of harmful ultraviolet radiation from the sun, but can be destroyed by atoms released by chlorofluorocarbons and other chemicals (watch explainer). The 1985 discovery of a growing hole in the ozone layer over Antarctica caused by CFCs prompted the agreement, which became the first treaty ratified by every UN member state in history.
The protocol established timelines for the phasing out of various ozone-depleting substances, which had been widely used as refrigerants, insulating foams, and solvents in industrial processes. It also set differentiated phase-out schedules for different countries and created a multilateral fund to support developing nations' transition to safer technologies.
Since its adoption, five major amendments have expanded the treaty to include additional ozone-depleting substances and, eventually, potent greenhouse gases like hydrofluorocarbons. It is widely credited with reversing global ozone depletion and is projected to restore the ozone layer to 1980 levels by about 2070. It also prevented an estimated 135 gigatons of carbon dioxide-equivalent emissions, making it one of the most successful climate mitigation efforts in history.
Learn even more by exploring all our findings on the Montreal Protocol here.
Here's a sample of what we found ...
> The Montreal Protocol is expected to prevent 443 million cases of skin cancer in the US. (Read)
> ... and once made CFCs Miami's most valuable contraband after cocaine. (Read)
> Why did the ozone hole appear over Antarctica and not a populous region? (Watch)
> A look at Earth without the Montreal Protocol and continued ozone depletion. (Watch) |
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Voyager mission, explained
NASA's Voyager mission launched two probes in separate months during the summer of 1977 to observe Jupiter and Saturn over a five-year period. By taking advantage of an optimal planetary alignment, the probes slingshot around the gas giants and extended their mission to include Uranus, Neptune, and interstellar space beyond the edge of the solar system, which Voyager 1 and 2 reached in 2012 and 2018, respectively (see where they are now).
Each probe has a suite of instruments designed to observe and measure the composition of planetary bodies. These include both infrared and ultraviolet spectrometers, wide- and narrow-angle cameras, and instruments to measure magnetic fields, solar wind particles, and cosmic rays. The data takes about a day to reach Earth using the Deep Space Network. To save power and extend the mission's life, several instruments have been turned off over time.
Among the mission achievements were the discoveries of active volcanism on Jupiter's moon, Io—the first observed volcanism beyond Earth—and potentially habitable conditions on Saturn's moon, Titan. Voyager 1 also captured a mosaic of images of the solar system, which included the famous "Pale Blue Dot." Both probes carry a copy of the Golden Record, a message to the stars that attempts to condense humanity's culture into a phonograph record.
Learn even more by exploring all our findings on the Voyager Mission here.
Here's a sample of what we found ...
> NASA fixed Voyager 1's glitchy memory from 24 billion kilometers away. (Read)
> Hear Carl Sagan's inspiring reflection on humanity while describing the "Pale Blue Dot." (Listen)
> See photographs taken during the assembly of the Voyager probes. (View)
> ... and images taken by the Voyager spacecraft during planetary flybys. (View) |
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Like all great scientists, we love spending time researching the latest scientific breakthroughs, tech releases, engaging explainers, and the connections between science and society that are making headlines. Here's what we found this week.
> A step-down converter that transfers energy with mechanical vibrations
UC San Diego Today | Liezel Labios. Engineers have developed a prototype chip design that incorporates piezoelectric resonators to optimize the decrease in voltage from power sources to sensitive circuits. This may improve how GPUs—the engines of AI data centers—convert and manage power. (Read | Learn about Data Centers)
> A computer program that can maximize solar power generation in any location
Columbia Engineering | Mohamed Abdelfattah. Researchers have developed a system that uses a single image from a 360-degree camera to identify the optimal solar panel orientation to harvest the most energy throughout the year. The system identifies how shadows change throughout the day, as well as nearby reflective surfaces from which sunlight can be collected. (Read | Learn about Solar Power)
> Chaos in heart rate variability linked to central nervous system activity
Kyoto University | Staff. An analysis of heartbeat signals in participants performing cognitive tasks involving higher-order brain functions revealed that chaos-related values exhibited distinct changes that were missed by conventional markers. The study suggests parameters involving chaotic dynamics may provide a previously unknown window into brain-heart integration. (Read | Learn about Chaos Theory)
> A new approach to propulsion using 'metajets' illuminated by lasers
Texas A&M University | Maddi Busby. Made of ultrathin materials engineered with tiny patterns that control how light behaves, these micron-scale devices can lift and steer objects in multiple directions when light reflects off them, producing a force. The breakthrough may one day reduce travel time to the nearest star system, Alpha Centauri, from thousands of years to roughly 20 years. (Read | Learn about Lasers)
> A universal binder system for 3D printing components from multiple materials
Karlsruher Institut für Technologie | Christian Könemann. Although 3D printing has traditionally been limited to pure materials, the system ensures that particles of different materials bond during a single printing process, allowing the creation of complex objects with conflicting properties, such as electronics with both insulating ceramics and conductive metallic structures. (Read | Learn about 3D Printing) |
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An underground Texas storage facility once supplied as much as 30% of US helium, but Congress directed the Department of the Interior to sell the facility and reserve, with the final sale occurring in 2024. |
Learn more about the Federal Helium Reserve here. |
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