Good morning. It's Tuesday, Sept. 23, and we're bringing you the latest Science & Technology newsletter. Every week, we provide fascinating deep dives into the worlds of physics, chemistry, biology, geoscience, computer science, and more.
This week, we're covering dinosaurs. In response to several email requests from our readers, we wanted to explore these fascinating reptiles, including where they came from, how they were discovered, and what we know about their time on Earth.
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— Marco Machado, 1440 Science and Technology Editor |
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Background
Dinosaurs are terrestrial reptiles that lived on Earth during the Mesozoic Era, from about 245 million to 66 million years ago.
The breaking apart of Pangaea—the supercontinent where their reign began—diversified dinosaurs as they adapted to their changing environment. As of 2025, roughly 1,000 species have been discovered, excluding the over 11,000 bird species we see today (learn why birds are dinosaurs).
With about 50 more identified yearly, each discovery reveals more about Earth’s history and how organisms evolve (see dinosaur directory).
Discovery
Humans have encountered dinosaur fossils for millennia and associated them with mythological creatures like dragons and Cyclopes. The idea that a species had gone extinct and been lost to the past wasn’t accepted until French naturalist Georges Cuvier’s studies of mammoth fossils in the late 18th century (learn more).
In 1842, English paleontologist and anatomist Richard Owen identified commonalities in the fossilized remains of three large lizards, which he classified under a new group called Dinosauria, a combination of the Greek words for “terrible” and “lizard” (dinosaur naming, explained).
The discovery sparked interest in fossil hunting, particularly in American paleontologists Edward Drinker Cope and Othniel Charles Marsh. The two collectively discovered over 130 new dinosaur species as they raced to outdo one another, turning to bribery, theft, and reckless excavations during the Bone Wars (watch explainer).
Fossil excavations have continued since then, and the development of radiometric dating has allowed scientists to construct a timeline of dinosaurs from fossils.
Origins
Dinosaurs came to dominate Earth’s surface after two mass extinction events.
The first, known as the “Great Dying,” saw thousands of years of intense volcanic activity in Siberia sharply raise global temperatures and ocean acidity, killing over 90% of all species. A group of archosaurs—the predecessors of dinosaurs—were among the survivors.
The second resulted from Pangaea splitting apart. For hundreds of thousands of years, eruptions from the splitting crust caused the extinction of over 70% of all species while the basin of what would become the Atlantic Ocean slowly formed.
Large, cold-blooded amphibians—dinosaurs’ competitors—died out because they could not regulate their temperatures during the event's volcanic winters and intense global warming cycles.
On the other hand, early dinosaurs possessed insulating feather coats and a hip bone that allowed them to walk upright for better stamina (learn more). These traits allowed dinosaurs to survive changing climatic conditions and travel farther for resources.
Life
Scientific models suggest that, in the millions of years that followed, early dinosaurs evolved into anywhere from 50,000 to 500,000 different species. Rather than all existing simultaneously, these species emerged and became extinct at various times as they succumbed to predators or disease.
Studies of fossils and other remains suggest dinosaurs exhibited many characteristics of modern-day animals, including having herd-like social structures and working in communities to protect their eggs, migrate, and hunt or forage for food.
Different dinosaurs ate meat, plants, or both. Some carnivores, like the Tyrannosaurus rex, engaged in cannibalism, while some herbivores, like the Brontosaurus, ate rocks to help grind food in their stomachs.
Research suggests dinosaurs communicated visually—much like birds do with their plumage—while others, like the Hadrosaur, bellowed deeply (listen here). Fossilized eye and ear structures have revealed that some dinosaurs were nocturnal (learn more).
Extinction
The age of dinosaurs ended when an asteroid larger than Mount Everest struck Earth in what is now the Yucatan Peninsula. Analysis of the impact site—the Chicxulub crater—shows that the impact released energy equivalent to 4.5 billion Hiroshima atomic bombs, triggering earthquakes, tsunamis, and volcanic eruptions worldwide that altered the climate and wiped out over 70% of species.
Small avian dinosaurs were the only ones that survived and continued to evolve into the birds of today (learn how). |
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In partnership with Miso Robotics |
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Elon Musk: 'Robots Will…Do Everything Better' |
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And you can join as an investor before they scale into a $4B/year revenue opportunity. Invest in Miso today and unlock up to 8% bonus stock.* |
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Dinosaurs might still roam Earth if the Chicxulub asteroid had hit elsewhere |
Some scientists argue that the asteroid's impact would have been less severe if it had struck the ocean instead of shallow seas. In this scenario, small dinosaurs might have become urban survivors, living in cities alongside humans, much like pigeons or rats do today. Learn more about this alternate history here. |
Dinosaurs ranged from the size of chickens to multistory buildings |
The largest known dinosaur, Argentinosaurus, was about 39 meters long—nearly half a football field—and outweighed a Boeing 737. Species like Parvicursor and Epidexipteryx were less than 45 centimeters long, though the actual smallest dinosaur is likely lost to history. Check out how the ones we know of compare here. |
Millions of years of evolution produced dinosaurs with bizarre features |
Some of the weirdest dinosaurs include a cross between a parrot and a porcupine, a dinosaur whose arms each ended with one finger, a vampire dinosaur, a dinosaur with wings on its legs instead of its arms, and a Harry Potter-inspired “dragon king of Hogwarts.” See a list of other strange dinosaurs here. |
Dinosaur portrayals mistakenly limit them to only living in tropical climates |
The ancient creatures have been brought to life in cinema by combining animatronics and CGI. However, creative liberties have created misconceptions about dinosaurs for audiences, including that the Tyrannosaurus rex could not see stationary prey. Listen to a paleontologist discuss dinosaur movie mistakes here. |
Dinosaurs are defined by traits that many dinosaur-like creatures lack |
Although pterodactyls, mosasaurs, crocodilians, and other organisms are mistaken for dinosaurs, they do not have upright legs or specific hip structures characteristic of the terrestrial reptiles. Some, like the Dimetrodon, are more closely related to humans than dinosaurs. Learn about more dinosaur impostors here. |
Explore an interactive timeline and map of dinosaurs across the globe |
This tool maps dinosaur habitats based on fossil sites around the world, with short articles and additional information—including size, diet, and weight—about each dinosaur. Dinosaurs can also be compared across emergence and extinction dates via a timeline and data table. Access the interactive here. |
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Like all great scientists, we love spending time researching the latest scientific breakthroughs, tech releases, engaging explainers, and the connections between science and society that are making headlines. Here's what we found this week.
> Neuroscientists see decision-making in a brain for the first time
CNN | Mindy Weisberger. Using electrodes to record the activity of 621,733 neurons across 279 areas of a mouse brain, researchers confirmed that decisions are made via a coordinated process rather than confined to one region of the brain. (Read)
> Researchers show how AI models can be forced into compliance
ZME Science | Tudor Tarita. Wharton School's Generative AI Labs found that psychological techniques used to influence people, such as peer pressure, can be effective at getting large language models to ignore their safety protocols. (Read)
> Plants engineered to absorb more carbon dioxide via new biochemical cycle
Ars Technica | John Timmer. Recognizing the enzyme that incorporates CO2 during photosynthesis is inefficient, Taiwanese scientists created a suite of enzymes that opened a new metabolic pathway, which also caused plants to grow larger. (Read)
> Cellphone bans are bringing cassette, CD, and MP3 players to classrooms
The New York Times | Callie Holtermann. Bans implemented to help students focus and minimize distractions have led young people to seek out non-smartphone alternatives for music, including Apple's iPod Shuffle and Sony's Discman. (Read)
> International Diabetes Federation recognizes Type 5 diabetes
Science Alert | Craig Beall. The disease is estimated to affect as many as 25 million people worldwide and is linked to malnutrition during early life, which prevents the normal development of the pancreas and insulin production. (Read)
> Europe's first exascale supercomputer is 100% powered by renewable energy
Nature | Jonathan O'Callaghan. The fourth-most-powerful supercomputer in the world performs more than 1 quintillion (1018) operations per second and will improve research in weather modeling, astrophysics, and biomedical sciences. (Read) |
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In partnership with Miso Robotics |
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The AI Restaurant Brands Are Demanding |
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Sellouts are good for business, and Miso sold out initial units of its newest AI-powered kitchen robot, Flippy Fry Station, in one week.
Why? The $1T fast-food industry faces 144% worker turnover and $20/hour minimum wages in places like California. But these units can boost industry profits by up to $24B. Brands like White Castle already use them. Full-scale manufacturing is underway. New installations are coming. Invest in Miso today to earn limited-time bonus stock.* |
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Please support our sponsors! |
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New in 1440 Science & Technology |
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With curiosity leading the way, our team went out looking for wonders, oddities, and insights in the natural and tech worlds. Here's what we discovered.
—Marco Machado, 1440 Science and Technology Editor
> Why summertime produces the best photographs of the Milky Way.
> What is osmotic power?
> An overview of "aging clocks," or biological age tests.
> Food scientists explain how to make the perfect ice cream at home.
> How the brain makes some athletes better with age.
> Listen to technology reporters discuss what AI is actually good at.
> The asteroids big enough to wipe out all life on Earth.
> Watch how standing under power lines can turn you into a lightsaber battery.
> Understanding how anesthesia works.
> Why polar bears don't hibernate.
Thank you to our readers for inspiring us with their questions! If you have any involving science and technology and would like them answered, tell us here. |
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Dinosaurs are classified into two major groups based on whether their hips are lizard-like or bird-like, but modern birds evolved from lizard-hipped dinosaurs. |
Learn more about dinosaur groups and subgroups here. |
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*Disclosure: This is a paid advertisement for Miso Robotics’ Regulation A offering. Please read the offering circular at invest.misorobotics.com. |
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