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World War IIWorld War II was a global conflict from 1939 to 1945, involving over 50 countries and 100 million mobilized military personnel. The war became the largest conflict in human history in terms of geographic scale and human cost, with an estimated 70 million to 85 million fatalities—including over 50 million civilians.
The roots of World War II lie in the punitive 1919 Treaty of Versailles, which disarmed Germany, imposed steep reparations, and forced it to accept sole blame for World War I. As the Great Depression challenged the liberal democratic order, militant nationalist movements looking to expand their territories emerged: Benito Mussolini's fascism in Italy, Adolf Hitler's National Socialism (or Nazism) in Germany, and Imperial Japan.
World War II’s end launched the Cold War, pitting the United States against the Soviet Union and reshaping global geopolitics into competing ideological blocs. The war’s unprecedented destruction and the horror of Axis war crimes—most notably the Holocaust—sparked a moral imperative to prevent future atrocities.Explore World War II
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The 1951 Refugee Convention established international refugee rights and state obligations amid mass World War II displacementThe international treaty defines refugee status and outlines refugees' entitled rights while establishing state obligations to protect them. The UNHCR explains the convention's significance in creating the legal framework governing refugee protection worldwide. UNHCRWinston Churchill said he was comforted by 'Pride and Prejudice' during World War IIThe prime minister was bedridden in a hospital with pneumonia in 1943. In his memoirs, Churchill recalls how Austen's "Pride and Prejudice" comforted him, especially because its characters remained calm amid the political turbulence of the time. Jane Austen's HouseAfter World War II, pizza took off in the USPizzerias opened in cities throughout the 1920s and '30s, especially those with large Italian immigrant populations, but the cuisine didn't take off nationally until after World War II. Some credit that with American soldiers' exposure to the food while stationed in Italy; others point to the invention of the mass-produced gas-fired ovens, which made opening a pizzeria considerably easier. Below is a 1944 clip from the New York Times, the first time the paper mentioned pizza. Tasting TableA popular tag in World War II announced 'Kilroy was here'The graffito appeared seemingly everywhere throughout the 1940s and followed a similar pattern: A man with an oversized nose peering over a ledge, with the phrase written below it. Scholars believe it was an American form of similar tags that appeared in Australia and England, making "Kilroy" a meme long before the word had entered the lexicon. ThoughtCoThe Russia-Ukraine conflict is the largest ground war in Europe since World War IIThe Russia-Ukraine war began on Feb. 24, 2022, when Russian forces launched a multi-front invasion. The conflict has become Europe's largest ground war since World War II, reshaping global security, energy markets, and alliances. Armed Conflict Location & Event DataFranklin D. Roosevelt's 1941 speech framed World War II as a global fight for universal rightsEleven months before the attack on Pearl Harbor, President Roosevelt outlined four fundamental freedoms that, in his words, people "everywhere in the world" ought to enjoy—speech, worship, freedom from want, and freedom from fear. FDR Presidential Library and MuseumComic books were used as a form of government propaganda in World War IIThe government recognized that comic books were widely read by servicemen (with nearly half deeming themselves regular readers) and by people around the world, making it a perfect vehicle for its antifascist, pro-American message. In addition, the medium was rather crude, allowing for what historian Paul Hirsch called "incredibly aggressive propaganda." The Library of CongressWorld War II helped convince food companies to produce more processed foodsProcessed foods had existed since the 19th century, but they began infiltrating the mainstream during World War II, with foods designed to last on the battlefield for days. After the war, food companies saw great potential in the relatively cheap foods aimed at busy households. (Some readers may experience a paywall.) The New York TimesThe US tried to buy Greenland in 1867 and after World War IIDenmark first took possession of the large, ice-covered island in the northern Atlantic in the 1700s. The local population is a mix of native Inuit, Norwegians (from the medieval era), and Danes, though the population is only 56,000. The US has seen the defensive and economic potential of the island for over 150 years. The Infographics ShowDisney chipped away at its debt by creating propaganda during World War IIDisney began producing training videos for the Navy and propaganda films for US involvement in World War II, including the shorts "Der Fuehrer's Face," "The Spirit of '43," and "Donald Gets Drafted." The effort provided a much-needed cash injection, allowing Disney to continue producing films. Smithsonian MagazineBefore World War II, the US was a Pacific powerDecades before Pearl Harbor, the US held major Pacific territories—Hawaii, the Philippines, Guam, American Samoa, and numerous island bases—giving it strategic reach across the western Pacific. This presence increasingly overlapped with Japan’s imperial ambitions in the region, contributing to rising tensions. National Park ServiceGerman printer Richard Sellmer revived Advent calendars after World War IIAdvent calendar production resumed in 1946, when German printer Richard Sellmer began issuing nostalgic winter-town designs that became classics, later exporting them to the United States. His company still operates today, producing more than 140 varieties. Sellmer AdventskalenderBill Nye believes a World War II-level mobilization is needed to end climate changeAs part of his science advocacy efforts, Nye has argued that existing technologies, including electric vehicles and renewable energy, can already significantly reduce emissions. However, switching to these technologies requires a more expansive awareness of the problem and a greater sociopolitical willingness by policymakers and the general public. QuartzJacqueline Jenkins-Nye—Bill Nye's mother—worked as a code-breaker in World War IIWhile in the Navy, she was recruited to work on Enigma to help decode messages from the German military. Historians estimate that the efforts of code-breakers may have collectively shortened the war by as much as two years. PBSPenicillin slashed battlefield pneumonia deaths during World War IIBefore antibiotics, bacterial pneumonia killed about 18% of infected soldiers in World War I. By World War II, penicillin cut that death rate to less than 1%.
PBS NewsWorld War II soldiers received specially-made vinyl records"V-Discs" were vinyl records featuring popular folk, classical, and jazz songs. This was one of the first widespread uses of vinyl, rather than shellac, records. National Endowment for the HumanitiesDuring World War II, turbulence was used to make ice creamBefore a mission, bomber crews packed buckets of ice cream mix into the rear gunner's compartment. Once airborne, freezing air solidified it, and turbulence churned it smooth, so that pilots had a fresh ice cream after landing. 1440'Keep Calm and Carry On' was long-forgotten World War II propaganda The British Ministry of Information developed the stoic phrase ahead of German attacks at the start of World War II in 1939. It was never officially released on posters and then lay dormant until 2000, when one of the remaining posters was discovered at a bookstore in the UK. It has since been adapted into countless memes. BBCThe world rapidly decolonized after World War II After WWII, weakened European powers faced mounting resistance from colonized peoples. Between 1945 and 1980, dozens of nations across Africa, Asia, and the Middle East gained independence. CFR Education from the Council on Foreign RelationsSee what it was like to live in the United States during World War IIIn America, life was transformed by total war: sixteen million service members left civilian life, while massive industrial production demanded labor. Women, minorities, and teens filled factories, fueling boomtown growth and breaking social barriers. Simultaneously, rationing, recycling drives, Victory Gardens, ration stamps, blackout drills, and war bond campaigns permeated daily routines. US National Parks ServiceGermany’s invasion of Poland in 1939 launched World War IIOn September 1, 1939, Nazi Germany launched a surprise invasion of Poland using blitzkrieg—coordinated air bombardments and armored assaults—to overwhelm Polish defenses within weeks. This lightning-strike strategy shocked the world and signaled both the start of World War II and a revolutionary shift in modern military tactics. AP ArchiveOne US Marine fighter squadron made their own ice cream during World War IITo boost his squad’s morale during World War II, squadron commander J. Hunter Reinburg developed a method for making ice cream on the fly: Empty ammo cans filled with ingredients were flown at altitudes high enough for them to freeze. Smithsonian MagazineWorld War II innovations helped advance car racingModern American auto racing began in the 1920s with bootleggers modifying cars to outrun authorities. World War II innovations like better engines and surplus parts fueled post-war racing. By 1947, Bill France Sr. founded NASCAR, creating a unified league with consistent rules, transforming stock car racing into one of America’s favorite sports. 1440A collection of contemporary maps from World War IINewspapers published detailed maps of the conflict in real-time. See different portrayals of the situation, ranging from propaganda maps to speculative maps about the war's outcome. The fascinating depictions reveal how maps can show us the aspirations and intentions of different players in a global conflict. Nathan GoldwagHow World War II affects your wallet todayThe world's deadliest conflict also impacted social programs extensively, including ways that still affect your money today. World War II is responsible for the practice of employers withholding tax payments and sponsoring health insurance, as well as the norm of providing school lunches for the nation's schoolchildren. Watch this brief video to learn more. Kite and KeyThe Manhattan Project was one of the most expensive undertakings of World War II Building the first atomic weapons required hundreds of thousands of workers, vast secret facilities, and enormous spending. This 1998 study details the full cost of the Manhattan Project and compares it to other major US wartime expenditures. Brookings InstituteThe British who conscientiously objected to World War IIAbout 60,000 British men and 900 British women declared a conscientious objection to the Second World War. This article details the stances, struggles, and work of World War II's British conscientious objectors, many of whom were willing to assist in war efforts as non-combatants. According to this article, many more women would have registered as "conchies" if only they had an official way to do so. Three-quarters of men who registered as conscientious objectors were assigned work of "national importance," which ranged from agricultural to non-combatant work in the army itself, often in medical services. The ConversationFlip through the journal created by prisoner of war during World War IIJoseph Edward Carter was working as a US bomber pilot during World War II when he was shot down over Germany in late 1943 and taken prisoner. This digitized copy of his journal, created during his imprisonment, offers a glimpse into his life and includes diary entries, collages, and other expressions of creativity. Carter started the journal to pass the time and entertain himself. Sketches are found throughout the book. Carter's journal provides insight into the experience of prisoners of war held in the Stalag Luft III camp in Sagan, Germany, during World War II. JSTOR.ORGHow the BBC secretly helped undermine Nazi Germany during World War IIThis collection of interviews details how the BBC secretly assisted intelligence agencies, militaries, and resistance efforts during World War II. The BBC could broadcast to German-occupied Europe regularly, allowing it to assist the Allies through coded messages and propaganda. The organization's tech and engineers also worked to help disrupt communication between enemy pilots and tanks. BBC NewsWojtek the bear fought for Poland in World War IIWojtek was a Syrian brown bear who eventually became a mascot, symbol, and eventually a soldier attached to the Polish II Corps during World War II. Learn about the amazing Wojtek, the Polish II Corps, and the incredible history of the Polish soldiers, many of whom had been imprisoned by the Germans or Soviets, who served during World War II. TheCollectorJapan's 1990s deflation followed the country's fastest growth periodThe end of World War II ended Japan's isolation in the global economy, prompting what's now called the "Japanese Economic Miracle." From the 1940s to the 1980s, Japanese policy makers enacted ultra-loose monetary policies that pushed a ton of cash into the market and fueled rapid growth. But these policies ultimately helped create a bubble and sent the country into a deep period of deflation. Patrick BoyleAirbus is a rare European industrial success story who overtook a rival American firmAfter World War II, the US dominated aviation, particularly Boeing. To compete, Europe's major industrial nations pooled resources to form Airbus, a customer-centric airplane manufacturer. Its A320 family of planes became the most popular in airliner history, leading to profitability in the 1990s. Amid Boeing's major hurdles in recent years, Airbus remains the industry leader. Works in ProgressThere is a secretive bomb-proof bunker located under the White HouseBuilt in 1942 during World War II, the Presidential Emergency Operations Center lies beneath the East Wing. Designed to protect the president during air raids—and later nuclear threats—it remains a top-secret command site used during crises like 9/11. Elle DecorIn 2022, a piece of Challenger was discovered on the ocean floorWhile searching for World War II wreckage near Cape Canaveral, Florida, for a documentary, divers discovered debris on the seafloor that NASA later confirmed to be a piece of Space Shuttle Challenger wreckage. The piece is at least 15-by-15 feet in size and partially buried under sand. ABC NewsBluegrass, a subgenre of country music, allows every participant to take a soloThe music grew popular after World War II and, like country, was based on a combination of blues, spirituals and Celtic folk songs. Bluegrass has a "high, lonesome sound," as pioneered by Bill Monroe, and features breaks for every melody instrumentalist to take a solo. Smithsonian Folkways RecordingsNazi Germany replaced Advent calendars with depictions of family life under Nazi ruleDuring World War II, the Nazi regime banned printed Advent calendars because of religious messaging. Officials instead produced state-approved versions featuring swastikas, tanks, and Nazi symbols. Calvin UniversityThe US intervened in Latin America to block communist influence during the Cold WarFearing Soviet expansion, the US intervened across Latin America by backing coups, funding right-wing regimes, and supporting anti-communist militias—most notably in Cuba, Chile, Nicaragua and Guatemala. The Cold WarPenicillin supplies were ready for every wounded soldier on D-Day By June 1944, Allied stockpiles included 2.3 million doses of penicillin—enough to ensure that every soldier wounded during the pivotal Normandy landings could receive treatment.
The National WWII MuseumThe Seven Sisters were a dominant midcentury Western oil consortiumAmid the fallout of World War II, Western multinational corporations expanded their control of the production of oil across the oil-rich Middle East, earning the pejorative nickname of the Seven Sisters. In the 1970s, the group’s role diminished as nationalist movements pursued sovereign control of the oil. Herold Financial DictionaryGermany’s surprise offensive in December 1944 failed to break Allied linesIn a bold counterattack from December 16, 1944, to January 28, 1945, Hitler committed over 400,000 troops in a surprise “Bulge” through the Ardennes forest in France. Although initially successful in creating a 50‑mile incursion, Allied defense halted the advance. German forces suffered irrecoverable losses (~100,000), while Allied casualties totaled ~75,000, marking the offensive as the last major German gamble and a decisive step toward Nazi defeat. HISTORYThe treaty that ended the First World War laid the groundwork for the SecondOn June 28, 1919, the Treaty of Versailles officially ended World War I by demanding severe reparations, territorial losses, military restrictions, and the infamous “war guilt clause” against Germany. However, its harsh terms fostered deep resentment, economic instability, and political turmoil—ultimately becoming a catalyst for World War II. HISTORYKurt Vonnegut's 'Cat's Cradle' was inspired by the bombing of HiroshimaThe writer fought in World War II and witnessed the firebombing of Dresden, which he recounted in 1969's satirical "Slaughterhouse Five." Six years earlier, though, he wrote about the bombing of Hiroshima in "Cat's Cradle," channeling some of the horror he witnessed in Dresden to write about the dropping of the atomic bomb. (Some users may experience a paywall.) The AtlanticExploring carbon compound pore structures contributed to improved gas mask filtrationDuring World War II, the British Coal Utilisation Research Association sought to improve the efficiency of coal as an energy source and studied the effectiveness of charcoal filters to keep soldiers safe. Rosalind Franklin's research there formed the basis of her PhD and led to five scientific papers. NIHWhen German submarines lurked in US coastal watersDuring World War II, German submarines (also known as U-boats) prowled the Southern coast of the US in 1942 and 1943, sinking more than 60 ships and killing 600 Allied soldiers. The campaign is less well-known, since the major battles in Stalingrad and Midway happened at the time. Several of these submarines and the ships they sank are now popular diving spots. Smithsonian MagazineWomen in WWII used tattoos to avoid captureDuring World War II, Japanese soldiers kidnapped women from Southeast Asian countries and forced them into sexual slavery. But they hesitated to capture married women, a fact that women from the island of Timor exploited, painstakingly poking tattoos onto their bodies that marked them as married women. VICE AsiaCold War nuclear tests exposed thousands to atomic blastsAfter World War II, nuclear powers conducted thousands of weapons tests. This video pairs archival footage with interviews of veterans who witnessed Pacific test explosions, capturing the scale, shock, and human experience of being near a nuclear detonation. MotherboardHelioseismology—the study of seismic waves traveling in the sun—was born in the 1960sFollowing World War II, scientists began studying the sun's influence on radio waves, the most popular form of mass communication at the time. NASA missions to study the sun's interior and surface have since helped protect digital infrastructure. NASAThe story of the 1945 Minnesota Starvation ExperimentAmid the severe conditions of World War II, researchers were eager to learn the effects of starvation in a controlled study. This podcast dives into a yearlong study of 36 men at a Minneapolis college who endured a six-month period of semi-starvation, where their caloric intake was halved. Results from the experiment became a landmark study in human starvation. Revisionist HistoryThe attack at Pearl Harbor led to the world's first around-the-world commercial flightA World War II-era commercial flight was forced to change course when Pearl Harbor was bombed, leading the 12-member crew on the world's first commercial flight to circumnavigate the globe. The Boeing 314 crossed the equator four times during the journey, which totaled more than 30,000 miles and required the crew to strip the plane of any identifying marks. National Air and Space MuseumHow many people died in WWII?Fallen.io, a short animated data-driven documentary about war and peace, explores the harrowing statistics of World War II and sizes up its numbers to other wars in history, including recent conflicts. Watch and click through this interactive documentary to learn more. The Fallen of World War II