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EarthThe 4.5 billion-year-old Earth is the only known astronomical object to harbor life, giving rise to billions of species of stunning diversity, including ours, Homo sapiens. At 5.97 septillion kilograms and 40,000 kilometers in circumference, the third planet from the sun lies in the "Goldilocks zone," giving it the conditions needed to sustain liquid surface water. Earth is the densest planet in the solar system. It is theorized to contain a solid inner core surrounded by an outer core of liquid iron and nickel, above which sits a slow-moving rocky mantle that moves the crust's tectonic plates. This structure formed over tens of millions of years from remnants of the gas, dust, and rocks left over from the sun's formation. The Earth's five-layer atmosphere traps solar energy and maintains an average global surface temperature of 15 degrees Celsius (59 degrees Fahrenheit). Roughly 21% is oxygen, which is essential for respiration and supports combustion—not by burning itself, but by enabling other things to burn. Nitrogen (78%) dilutes the oxygen and prevents rapid combustion.Explore Earth

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Earth's magnetic field can trap high-energy charged particles produced by the sun and distant cosmic events in doughnut-shaped rings called Van Allen belts. Los Alamos National Lab Why Earth will be made uninhabitable by the sun far sooner than when the sun diesThe star has enough fuel to continue fusing hydrogen into helium for another 5 billion years, but the gradual increase in core temperature from these reactions will brighten the sun by 10% every billion years. Some models predict that the increased radiation will be enough to vaporize all of Earth's surface water about 1 billion years from now, long before the sun becomes a red giant and disintegrates the planet. The Conversation Earth's core is about 2.5 years younger than its surface according to relativityDue to differences in where objects are located within gravitational fields, time will run at different rates, which has major impacts on technology that relies on synchronization. For example, GPS satellites run about 38 microseconds faster every day than clocks on Earth's surface, resulting in GPS discrepancies of about six miles, were it not for software corrections. NOVA PBS Official Why Earth would become a more deadly environment without the ozone layerThe ozone layer blocks almost all of the sun's harmful, including dangerous UVC rays that can damage cells by breaking chemical bonds. Without it, rates of skin cancer, crop failures, oceanic die-offs, and widespread ecosystem collapse would increase significantly, making Earth largely uninhabitable. What Happens If ?Explaining why Earth's atmosphere doesn't crush us, despite weighing 11.24 quintillion poundsGravity pulling down on over 5.1 quintillion kilograms of gases surrounding Earth's surface produces an atmospheric pressure of 15 pounds per square inch (101,325 Newtons per square meter). However, since air surrounds objects, the forces from opposing air pressures normally cancel each other out, eliminating any detectable weight. Live Science Why Earth's atmosphere constantly loses the universe's lightest elements to spaceThe masses of hydrogen and helium are too small for these gases to be held by Earth's gravitational force, particularly when these atoms are given energy from collisions with high-speed particles from the sun. Although the planet loses a meter-wide balloon's worth of hydrogen every second, it will still take billions of years to exhaust the planet of this element. MinuteEarth Explore Earth's atmosphere and what its layers contain in this interactive adventureIn this interactive, users can move from Earth's surface up through its atmosphere, exploring the natural phenomena found in each layer, including atmospheric rivers, auroras, and meteor showers. Artificial structures such as weather balloons and the International Space Station can also be found on the adventure. NASA 'The earth is rude, silent, incomprehensible at first, Nature is rude and incomprehensible at first, Be not discouraged, keep on, there are divine things well envelop'd.'- Poet Walt Whitman (1819-1892) Earth Science Club of Northern Illinois Some earthquakes can produce smaller tremors called boomerang earthquakes, which travel in the opposite direction and ripple back to the original earthquake's source. Discover Magazine Earth's smooth, continuous motion as it orbits the sun prevents detectable motionAlthough humans are sensitive to acceleration, Earth's nearly circular orbit around the sun and its slow spin relative to its size produce negligibly small, minimally changing accelerations. However, the changing seasons and the day-night cycle are evidence of Earth's movement through space, as verified by satellites and telescopes. The Conversation The Whole Earth Catalog provided an early blueprint for the social internetThe Whole Earth Catalog, a counterculture guide to alternative living, was a repository for hippie ideas. In 1985, its founder decided to bring Whole Earth to the nascent internet with the Whole Earth ‘Lectronic Link, or WELL, an early web forum. JSTOR Daily Emulating Earth’s light-dark cycle is important for astronaut health and safetyAstronauts aboard the International Space Station experience 16 daily sunrises, but scientists have learned to try to promote circadian rhythms by phasing through several light settings aboard the ISS to improve astronauts’ sleep and productivity. NASA Earth Day began as a grassroots protest coordinated by a 25-year-oldWith experience as a Vietnam activist and inspired by his upbringing in a polluted mill town, Denis Hayes drew 20 million participants to the first Earth Day after being selected to organize it. The momentum of the event—celebrated across about 10,000 schools and universities—pressured Congress to pass environmental legislation. Throughline Earth Day has become the largest civic event in the worldWhat began in 1970 with 20 million Americans now involves more than 1 billion participants across over 190 countries each year. Earth Day now encompasses rallies, cleanups, and climate actions worldwide. EarthDay.org Reported earthquake magnitudes often change because initial values are based on limited information, whereas revised magnitudes account for factors such as fault size, rupture duration, and seismic wave behavior.Why do seismologists change the magnitude of an earthquake? Obtaining an accurate preliminary magnitude can be difficult due not only to the complex processes that occur deep within the Earth, but because there are over a dozen techniques for calculating the magnitude of an earthquake. In this animation we look at two magnitude scales, and use two examples of magnitude changing. Animation and graphics by Jenda Johnson, geologist, Earth Sciences Animated. Narrated by: Dr. Wendy Bohon, Informal Education Specialist, IRIS. Written by Jenda Johnson and Dr. Wendy Bohon. Reviewed by: Dr. Anne Trehu, seismologist, Oregon State University and Dr. Danielle Sumy, Project Associate, IRIS. ShakeMap intensity maps from the United States Geological Survey. NEIC earthquakes animation from Pacific Tsunami Warning Center (NOAA). “Blind Thrust” fault model by Brad Aagaard. “The Loma Prieta Earthquake” footage from California Highway Patrol, Multidisciplinary Accident Investigation Team. Photographs from the United States Geological Survey. “Global Resonance” by Knights of Fire (Burnt Promises album). Maps from Google Earth. IRIS Earthquake Science Although earthquakes cause about 80% of tsunamis, almost all earthquakes lack sufficient energy to cause the sudden shift in the ocean floor needed to substantially displace enormous volumes of water.View enlarged image of Earth's tectonic plates. Source: U.S. Geological SurveyDownload Image Earth's surface is made up of tectonic plates, which are large slabs of solid rock that fit together like puzzle pieces. These plates meet at plate boundaries and are in constant motion. Where the s NOAA Techniques to earthquake-proof a building include the use of counterweights, such as a massive column or pendulum, to dampen the impact of seismic activity and isolating a building's structure from its base.Earthquakes are a problem for the whole world. But some countries have to deal with it more often than others. Ring of Fire is an infamous path along the Pacific Ocean that goes through countless earthquakes each year. When the countries around this area are so prone to earthquakes, the government bodies there has a responsibility to make their buildings as durable as possible. Taking the necessary precautions can be the difference between life and death in situations like the issue is not one that you can take lightly. In this episode, we are going to take a look at how different countries and different buildings take prosecutions to decrease the effects of these earthquakes. Japan, Utah, and Taiwan are all situated around fault lines and they all deal with the threat in different ways. Japan took inspiration from traditional architecture to build the tallest structure in the country. Utah fixed pass mistakes to retroactively make a building proof with seismic dampers. And finally, Taiwan specifically designs a building to withstand the biggest earthquakes by taking advantage of flexibility, physics, and a solid foundation. #earthquake Interesting Engineering Earthquakes of identical magnitudes are unlikely to cause equal damage because magnitude only measures energy released, and earthquake severity depends on environmental factors, such as local architecture and geological conditions. Smithsonian Magazine Tectonic earthquakes are caused by tectonic plates sliding past one another at fault zones, deforming rock through friction as energy builds like a stretched rubber band.Why do earthquakes happen and what are the different kinds of quakes? Caltech scientists explains the science behind the shaking. Caltech Science Exchange Earth’s major tectonic plates make up 95% of its surfaceTectonic plates are pieces of Earth’s lithosphere, which consists of the crust and the solid, upper layer of the mantle. Segments of major plates can break and form minor or microplates, whose total number varies based on ongoing geological activity. WorldAtlas Earth is the only planet in our solar system with fireAnd while the sun seems like fire, and other planets have volcanoes, the sun and lava aren't the same thing as fire. To produce fire, a planet needs three ingredients: oxygen, fuel, and heat. No other planet has all three. PBS Eons Portugal's 1775 earthquake is considered Europe's first modern natural disaster. BBC Global Explore the Earth at night from spaceSee the planet in all its luminosity with this NightEarth app, an interactive spherical globe showing real satellite imagery of Earth. Toggle between views of real-time clouds, aurora borealis activity, and more. NightEarth Earth’s tilt and orbit cause the sun to create a figure-eight patternThe shape—called an analemma—can be obtained by photographing the sun from the same location and time daily for a year. The Earth's eccentricity created the analemma's width, and its tilt shifts the sun's height in the sky over the seasons. TED-Ed NASA's Near-Earth Object Surveyor can detect asteroids coming from the sunTelescopes directed at the sun or lacking heat shields may become damaged, limiting our ability to monitor potentially dangerous objects coming from that direction. The NEO Surveyor is built to overcome this problem and spot asteroids that reflect as little as 5% of incoming light. New Scientist Earth has shifted between extreme warming and cooling phases for 500 million yearsEarth is in an interglacial period of the Quaternary glaciation, resulting in receding glaciers and mild temperatures. However, today's warming trend is occurring much faster than previous warming periods in the climate record. SciShow Changes in Earth's orbital cycles influence the timing of ice agesThese cycles include changes in Earth's orbit shape, tilt, and wobble, all of which alter how much solar energy different parts of Earth receive over time. Due to orbital eccentricity, summers in the Northern Hemisphere last about 4.5 days longer than winters. NASA Earth's circumference was estimated over 2,000 years ago using geometry and shadowsBy measuring the angle of the shadow cast in Syene when no shadow was cast in Alexandria, Eratosthenes used the distance between the two cities and trigonometry to estimate the Earth's circumference to within a few percentage points of the actual value. Insider Science Earth's inner structure is a dynamic system of layers in constant, slow motionFrom the crust to the core, each of Earth's layers—some solid, some liquid—plays a role in generating its magnetic field, moving tectonic plates, and cycling matter. These details are determined through modeling since humans have only drilled 12 kilometers underground. BBC Rare earth elements may be extracted from mine waste and coal ashRather than focusing solely on new mining operations, which can take decades to establish, some startups are developing methods to extract these metals from the toxic waste of existing operations and thereby minimize environmental impacts. (Some readers may experience a paywall.) MIT Technology Review Earth's core is leaking precious metals, including goldEarth's core, containing 99.999% of all known gold, is leaking trace amounts of precious metals into the mantle. Advanced isotopic methods have detected this leakage at volcanoes in Hawai'i, providing new insights into the movement of material beneath Earth's surface. Popular Science The word 'Earth' comes from the German root word for 'ground'In English, "Earth" means the planet and the land, but many languages identify each with distinct words. Earth is often given a maternal name or one that identifies it as the land of the living. The Decolonial Atlas Records of Earth's magnetic field on the seafloor validated plate tectonicsMatching glacial, fossil, and rock records, mountain ranges, and continental shapes across oceans was insufficient evidence for continental drift. Precise measurements of magnetic minerals on the ocean floor revealed seafloor spreading, which could only be explained by moving landmasses. Howtown Earth is the only terrestrial planet with a magnetic fieldIts magnetosphere emerges from a complex interior process of electrical conduction, heat, and motion known as the geodynamo. The magnetic field shields the Earth from unsafe cosmic radiation, providing one of the many conditions required for life. NASA Science Scientists investigate Earth's interior by studying seismic wavesScientists investigate Earth's interior by studying seismic wavesBelow Earth's atmosphere lies the crust, which extends to the Mohorovičić discontinuity between five and 20 miles below Earth's surface. Below the crust lies the mantle, the liquid-metal outer core, and the solid inner core, which surpasses 5,200 degrees Celsius (9,392 degrees Fahrenheit). Space.com Early Earth lifeforms likely made energy via mineral reactions, not sunlightEarth's initial atmosphere was filled with carbon dioxide, methane, and water, with most oxygen locked away in the rocky crust. Over time, bacteria evolved to slowly release that oxygen into the atmosphere by breaking down rock. American Society for Microbiology The Earth orbits the sun within the Orion Spur arm of the Milky Way galaxyThe solar system is roughly halfway between the galaxy's outer rim and its center, which is located about 25,000 light years away. The Milky Way is itself one of hundreds of thousands of galaxies in the Virgo Supercluster. BBC Sky at Night Magazine Earth's total mass is equivalent to 13 quadrillion Egyptian pyramids of KhafreNewton's law of universal gravitation was used to calculate the value after Henry Cavendish torsion balance experiments determined the missing value of the universal gravitational constant from Newton's equation. Live Science Earth is constantly bombarded by material from spaceMost of this matter is composed of small particles, with any smaller than 33 feet in diameter burning up in the atmosphere. Larger asteroids can reach the ground, and those larger than several thousand feet cause global damage, including earthquakes and tsunamis. 1440 Besides Earth, Mars is the only possibly habitable planet in our solar systemSending humans to Mars in the following decades poses significant challenges, from the vast distance covered to get materials there to powering technology during weekslong dust storms. Research is ongoing to develop life support systems that can regenerate or recycle consumables. NASA Voyager carries Earth's hopeful greeting into deep space as a message of peaceAlong with scientific instruments, each Voyager carried a golden record containing multilingual greetings—ranging from Sumerian and Akkadian to Thai and Cantonese—music, and sounds of Earth intended for any intelligent life that might find it. Aeon NASA explores Earth's deepest oceans to prepare for spaceBy studying extreme environments in Earth's hadal zone—the deepest part of the ocean —NASA tests technologies, probes life under crushing pressure, and gathers clues about potential oceans and possible life on worlds like Europa and Enceladus. BBC News How Earth's 'greenhouse effect' worksThe so-called "greenhouse effect," where various gases in Earth's atmosphere trap heat from the sun, is a crucial factor in our planet's ability to sustain life. It's also pivotal in discussions over humanity's impact on changes in the Earth's... British Geological Survey Zoom from Earth to Maisie's galaxyDiscovered by the Webb Telescope in 2022, Maise’s Galaxy (named after the nine-year-old daughter of the scientist who discovered it) was found as part of a survey of a section of the universe known as the Extended Growth Strip, home to thousands of galaxies. This video takes you from Earth to Maise’s galaxy, formed roughly 300 million years after the birth of the universe. CEERS Survey What did Earth look like when dinosaurs roamed?The face of the Earth isn’t remotely the same as when the dinosaurs ruled the roost. The passing of millions of years, plate tectonics, and a spotty track record with asteroid collisions have changed the planet’s surface. Use this interactive globe to see what the Earth looked like millions of years ago. The Dinosaur Database Why Turkey's earthquakes were so deadlyThe death toll from February 2023 has reached the tens of thousands, making it one of the deadliest natural disasters of the century. The intense seismic activity combined with poor and unregulated construction in many areas to drive fatalities.... Reuters Predicting earthquakes is difficult because different rock types can withstand different amounts of stress before breaking and melt at different temperatures within Earth's interior, introducing uncertainty into predictive models.This short video explains the causes of earthquakes and the different systems used to signal imminent seismic activity. YouTube Defending Earth against asteroidsThis three-minute video overview explains NASA's ambitious test to slightly alter the course of an asteroid by slamming a fast-moving space probe into its surface. Scientists hope to one day, if needed, use the technique to protect Earth from an asteroid impact. Johns Hopkins University Explore Earth's future climate under different levels of warmingAn incredible interactive project showing how global warming is projected to affect the world, from temperatures to rainfall, droughts and flooding, and more. Carbon Brief Visualizing Earth's space garbageAn unsavory byproduct of humanity's brilliant exploration of space, the Moon, and more, is the rapid production of space debris floating around in orbit. Its estimated over 25,000 objects are in orbit, a number that grows everyday as satellites are decommissioned, rockets enter orbit, and more. Now, you can visualize what this debris looks like from a zoomed-out perspective with this brief video. VideoFromSpace

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