What makes food crispy, and how science can be used to maximize this property

The fracturing texture experienced when biting into vegetable tempura, fried chicken, pastry crusts, and other foods comes from having a dehydrated, porous surface. When frying food in hot oil, trapped water vaporizes and escapes, creating tunnels and pores in the food as it dehydrates. Breading, particularly with the large, irregular shapes of panko, and leaveners can help create more air spaces.

The benefits of sous vide: cooking food in bags immersed in water

Through this technique, food can be prepared to precise temperatures lower than those of open flames, without the risk of overcooking, with less oil, fat, and salt, and without requiring ongoing attention. By allowing for long cooking times, tougher cuts of meat can also be prepared at lower temperatures.

Microwave ovens heat food by agitating certain molecules with non-ionizing light

Molecules with resonant frequencies within the microwave range vibrate, producing heat between adjacent matter, just as hands warm when rubbed together. The mesh in front of an oven's door confines the microwaves to the container, while the rotating plate allows different parts of food to travel through regions of maximum vibration.

Pellet grills evenly distribute heat across a grill

Using ignited wooden pellets and fans to evenly distribute the heat across the cooking surface, pellet grills give food deep flavor and grant cooks more control, offering a newfangled take on barbecue.

How to cook food with lasers

Creative Machines Lab at Columbia Engineering have developed a system of software-controlled lasers to cook food with precision, retain moisture with the final-cooked product, brown food within its original packaging, and create an entirely new meal creation process for a consumer. Watch this three-minute video to see for yourself.

When it's good for your food to stick in the pan

Non-stick cookware has wired us to think any sticking in the pan is bad. While that's true for cleaning purposes, some foods—like thin smash burgers or sauces—require that stickiness to achieve the right taste or shape.

How freeze-drying leaves food with less than 4% of its original water content

In specialized equipment, foods are brought down to temperatures below freezing before a vacuum pump removes the air from the container, lowering the pressure around the food and the boiling temperature of water. Heaters beneath the food slowly raise its temperature above the now-reduced boiling point, causing the water to go from a frozen to a gaseous state.

The history of many kitchen appliances involves unexpected discoveries and applications, including wartime radar turned hamster defroster and replacing an 'ice king' with heat-stealing boxes.

Data centers can be kept cool by circulating fluid over plates atop high-temperature components or by submerging equipment in non-corrosive oil that does not conduct electricity.

Fascinating evolution of the oven

From ancient wood-fired ovens in Rome and Egypt to modern microwaves, the oven’s evolution has shaped how we cook. Early ovens focused on heat retention, but breakthroughs like the gas stove in 1834, and the electric stove in 1892, brought precision. Then, in 1967, the microwave redefined convenience.

Heat pumps use an easily boilable chemical to regulate temperature

In air conditioners, warm air is pulled from a home to turn a refrigerant into a gas, which is then compressed, raising its temperature. The gas naturally releases this energy to the comparatively cooler environment when exposed, then expands and is reused in the system. Heaters run in reverse, with the refrigerant picking up energy from the comparatively warmer environment.

The importance of volatile aroma compounds in the flavor quality of food

Processes such as air movement and heating cause food to lose aroma molecules, which studies have shown play a major role in our sense of taste. While losing these molecules to the environment leaves fewer to be processed during consumption to intensify flavor, it can also produce previously nonexistent aroma compounds or release previously trapped ones, altering or enhancing the food's flavor.

13 unconventional ways to stay cool during heat waves

While air conditioning is the default solution for many in a heat wave, it can get expensive while requiring the consumption of fossil fuel energy. So, how else can you stay cool during a heat wave? This list compiles some practical, at times quirky, suggestions, including an ice-pack-filled aubergine hat.

Infrared light is most often associated with thermal radiation and cooking food

Although extensively used in remote controls for electronics, where LED lights send signals wirelessly, infrared cameras allow for night vision and thermography—imaging of heat patterns in the body to non-invasively reveal blood flow for supplementary diagnostics. Infrared radiation also provides heat in toasters, saunas, and other technologies.

Metals can be welded together in space without needing heat

On Earth, oxygen naturally reacts with metals to form an oxide layer on their surface, which prevents two different pieces from fusing when they come into contact. If the layer is worn away without oxygen to replenish it, metals can instead stick together upon impact—a phenomenon known as cold welding.

Freezer burn is the result of moisture leaving ice cream, something that's easily avoidable.

Our bodies cool us down by sweating because water requires a significant amount of energy to change state from liquid to gas, making it an ideal medium for carrying thermal energy away from our bodies.

Barbecue can be made with direct or indirect heat

Direct heat, called “grilling” in the USA, involves quickly cooking ingredients directly over the heat source. It's usually used for hamburgers or Japanese yakitori skewers. Indirect heat, where the ingredients are placed adjacent to the flames to cook “low and slow,” is associated with American barbecue dishes like smoked brisket.

Watch a server submerged in a fluid continue to run and stay cool by boiling the liquid away.

McDonald's french fries are, by far, the most popular french fries available at fast food restaurants around the world.

High-frequency sound waves have been used to brew espresso with room-temperature water and about one-fourth the energy of a traditional espresso machine, which relies on hot water and pressure.

Stainless steel and cast-iron pans should be used over older nonstick cookware

Although modern nonstick pans avoid forever chemicals like PFOA, they were previously used in the manufacturing of Teflon coatings and have been linked with certain types of cancer, infertility, and other adverse health outcomes. Vintage plastic utensils should also be avoided due to the leeching of contaminants in early formulations of plastic.

Watch an animation of what happens inside cookies as they bake in an oven

As temperatures rise and butter melts, trapped water expands, spreading the dough, which remains held together by a network of proteins. Maillard reactions produce browning on the surface beyond 310 degrees Fahrenheit (154 degrees Celsius), while caramelization can be triggered by baking past 356 degrees Fahrenheit (180 degrees Celsius).

Turbulence is needed to make airplanes more stable and golf balls fly farther

Vortex generators—small fins placed along airplane wings—create small eddies that prevent airflow separation, maintaining lift and preventing stalls. Golf balls have dimples that create a turbulent boundary layer on their surface, minimizing drag forces.

Interest in intermittent fasting outpaces the science

The public interest in fasting diets has outpaced the science behind related health claims. This article details how the science of fasting diets is mainly exploratory and focused on longevity and disease prevention. Current findings suggest fasting kick-starts regenerative processes in the body, decreases inflammation, and improves health outcomes overall. However, much of this research focuses on the short-term impact of fasting.

What’s the best way to reduce climate impact of food?

Food is a big part of everyone’s carbon footprint, and it’s important to understand the impact of our personal food consumption. Individual food choices can emit as many greenhouse gases as personal electricity use. Plant-based diets generally...

Water vapor is used to manage heat in high-end smartphones

While smartphones have traditionally been cooled using a highly conductive plate that dissipates heat from the chip, vapor chambers offer a higher heat-removal capacity. This technology has been utilized in laptops for decades to absorb heat by cycling a fluid between liquid and gaseous phases.

Health workers may cool body temperatures with convection cooling

That's spraying a patient with water and putting fans over them. Cooling the body by removing clothing and placing cold water and ice packs—and not blocking evaporation—are essential cooling steps.

Many of Wright's buildings used radiant heating

Frank Lloyd Wright’s buildings weren’t just radical because of how they looked, but many of them also incorporated stunning technological innovations. Radiant heating is one of Wright’s most popular heating systems, offering the comfort of walking on warm floors on a cold day.

Discover the chemistry behind smoking foods, including the types of smoking and the source of smoking flavors and colors.

There's no specific anti-inflammatory diet, but certain foods increase the chance of inflammation

Research suggests humans can reduce inflammation by limiting foods that are already known to be unhealthy for the human body—because they alter gut bacteria and stress the immune system—such as highly-processed foods, deep fried foods, sugary drinks, trans fats, red meats, and foods made with white flour. Foods that help the body include fatty fish such as salmon, legumes, fruits, and vegetables.

The stages of fasting

What happens to the body when it goes without caloric intake? This article overviews the immediate physical effects of fasting. Within a day of going without food, the body will have used up its glucose stores and ordered the liver and muscles to convert their glycogen (glucose storage) into usable glucose. By the second day, glycogen stores will run out, forcing the body to use fat as energy. This process is known as ketosis.

A collection of molecular gastronomy techniques, from flavored air to turning oils into powder

Soy lecithin can be blended with flavored mixtures, such as herbs and Parmesan, to produce edible bubbles, which can be frozen into a solid foam. Maltodextrin can be combined with liquid fats in a food processor to create light, flavorful powders.

Broken or neglected air conditioners are risky for respiratory health

A well-maintained air conditioner can typically keep out unwanted pathogens, but units that are dusty or water-logged can foster germs and cause harm. AC units also remove moisture from the air, potentially causing mucus membranes to dry out and become vulnerable to infection.

How the loss of Earth's atmosphere would cause oceans to boil at freezing temperatures

Many phenomena requiring air pressure, from the flight of birds and aircraft to the act of breathing, would no longer be possible. Because sound travels through vibrating air molecules, the loss of the planet's atmosphere would also create a silent environment. Even during daytime hours, the sky would resemble a clear night sky.

As of 2025, extensive research studies do not support fears about seed oils

Across human trials, seed oils have not been shown to increase rates of disease or inflammation, with a study of over 800 Swedish men finding that higher seed oil diets were linked to living longer. Reviews of these trials found better health outcomes when saturated fats were replaced with seed oils.

Remember: Not all fats are bad for you

Contrary to past dietary advice promoting low-fat diets, newer research shows that certain types of fats are both necessary and healthy. It all comes down to the type of fat you eat. Focus on getting "good" unsaturated fats from sources like nuts,...

How to create salad dressings with oil and water solutions that don't separate into layers

Such dressings, even when whisked together, often break within a few minutes, resulting in bites that are either harsh or oily. Small amounts of emulsifiers, such as mustard or mayonnaise, can stabilize and suspend oil droplets in water for longer periods because they possess both hydrophilic (water-loving) and hydrophobic (water-repelling) ends.