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Critical MineralsCritical minerals are a subset of minerals used to build the batteries, computer chips, and magnets that power modern technologies, from personal devices, to clean energy sources, and advanced military apparatuses.
The US government has identified 50 minerals as "critical," deeming them to be essential to the national interest but to have a vulnerable supply chain. Global competition to control the supply chains of these minerals—which are finite and dispersed around the world—has intensified as nations seek to gain an edge in today's technology-driven world.
Rare earth elements are some of the most sought-after minerals because their unique atomic structures give rise to various electrical, luminescent, and magnetic properties. While abundant throughout Earth's crust, rare earths are mixed in ores at low concentrations and require extraction and processing. As of 2025, China accounts for about 70% of global rare earth ore extraction and 90% of rare earth ore processing.Explore Critical Minerals
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All clean energy technologies rely heavily on critical mineralsAlthough many of these minerals have been used for decades, such as copper in electrical wiring, the accelerating demand for them has strained existing extraction and processing systems. Supply chain disruptions for these materials may delay and increase the cost of transitioning to solar, wind, hydroelectric, and geothermal power. International Energy AgencyBeyond critical minerals, copper is emerging as a bottleneck to clean energyCopper remains invaluable for the transmission of electricity needed in energy infrastructure projects, with 90% of the average circuit board made of the element. However, limited smelting capacity and low ore quality amid increasing demands are stressing global supplies. NPRClean energy technologies are more mineral-intensive than burning fossil fuelsSolar panels use silver due to its high conductivity, hydropower plants use chromium in their steel alloys, and geothermal plants need titanium to withstand abundant heat and pressure. Lithium—used in energy storage—is expected to see over 500% increased demand from 2020 to 2025. Visual CapitalistA story of one community's transition to clean energyA series of animated videos showcasing the types and benefits of marine energy. YouTubeUnderstanding how and when time began requires a theory of quantum gravityRewinding the universe to the big bang compresses all matter, energy, space, and time into a single point, necessitating a model that combines general relativity with quantum mechanics. Although physicists understand time to have begun when the universe did, a clear understanding of the mechanisms involved remains unclear. PBS Space TimeExplore policy options for reforming the Clean Water ActThe Bipartisan Policy Center brought together experts from across the political spectrum to discuss ways to expedite federal permits for energy and infrastructure projects, including updating some provisions of the Clean Water Act to reduce bureaucratic hurdles without compromising water protections. Bipartisan PolicyOsmotic power captures energy through water's movement across variations in salinityWater naturally moves from regions of low salinity, like freshwater, to areas of high salinity, like ocean water, across a semipermeable membrane. This movement produces pressure that can be harnessed to generate electricity. Earth.orgCooling each square foot of a room requires at least 20 BTUs of capacityBritish thermal units describe the cooling capacity of air conditioners, though noise levels, directional airflow, and filtration also affect their effectiveness. Insufficient BTUs are unlikely to cool a large enough room faster than the environment warms the air. WIRED1970s U.S. energy crisis sparked waves of green innovationFaced with the 1973 Arab oil embargo, the U.S. responded with bold innovation—enacting a 55 mph speed limit, pioneering daylight saving time, boosting solar research, expanding nuclear power, and pushing energy-efficient building designs and automotive technologies HISTORYAs fantasy football grew more popular, the NFL began adapting By the late 1990s, CBS, ESPN, and Yahoo had all launched their fantasy platforms, allowing the game to grow even more popular. By 2009, the NFL took note and began offering coverage that explicitly focused on fantasy metrics, including “RedZone,” a popular Sunday show that allows viewers to tune into the most crucial moments from around the league—or across their fantasy rosters. Wind farms are targets for conspiracy theories due to their visibility and complexityThe proliferation of misinformation and conspiracy theories surrounding wind farms is driven by deep-seated anxieties about change, distrust of government, and resistance to confronting the complexities of modern energy solutions. The ConversationAI's growing energy demands are driving tech companies to consider nuclear powerBig Tech has rebranded nuclear power as a green solution to address the strain on the grid from millions of people using power-hungry AI tools. As of mid-2025, generating one image uses as much electricity as charging the average smartphone, or leaving a household light bulb on for 87 consecutive days. The ConversationHigh-altitude kites can perform airborne collection of energy from high-speed windsWinds at high altitude are stronger and more consistent than those near Earth's surface, where natural and artificial barriers disrupt airflow. Kites pulled by the wind can extend a tether like a yo-yo, creating electricity in an attached ground generator. ZirothExplore an interactive graphic of a wind turbine's componentsWind turbines contain a gearbox that increases the rotation of the blades by a factor of 100 from low to high-speed shafts. The latter moves magnets that change the magnetic field within a generator, creating electricity. Energy.govFrom 1990 to 2020, wind turbine height and blade length have more than tripledWind turbines' energy generation capacity—or maximum power rating—also increased by 375% from 1998 to 2023. As of that year, wind turbines can produce more energy per dollar than solar panels, though transportation and installation challenges remain. US Department of EnergyThe 1973 oil embargo by OPEC inspired advances in alternative energy technologyThe shortages imposed by the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) created a global energy crisis and economic instability after the Arab-Israeli War. This led to investments in green technologies and improvements in automobile fuel efficiency and manufacturing. Smithsonian InstituteWind turbines provide renewable energy from land, lake, or ocean environmentsTurbines convert wind's kinetic energy into mechanical energy, which allows generators to create electricity. They are among the lowest-cost electricity sources and can be built to float above water at scales larger than the Statue of Liberty. National Renewable Energy LaboratoryNiagara Falls is New York State’s biggest electricity producerThe Robert Moses Niagara Power Plant and Lewiston Pump-Generating Plant together produce up to 2.6 million kilowatts—providing about 20% of New York State’s hydropower and supplying electricity to over 3 million homes. NY Power AuthorityExplore a series of articles on the costs of critical mineral extractionThe acquisition of critical minerals—essential materials for clean energy technologies—has often been accompanied by harm to water supplies, natural ecosystems, and Indigenous lands, raising questions about the overall benefit of these technologies. GristExplore an interactive database of critical minerals and their usesColumbia University's Critical Materials Monitor identifies 56 elements required for the clean energy transition. The tool provides details on the reserves, production, and trade of each element, alongside what materials are needed for each technology (desktop only). Center on Global Energy Policy at Columbia UniversityCritical mineral production may lift impoverished regions out of povertyMineral wealth can provide public revenue and economic livelihoods to those in mining regions. However, poor management and lack of oversight can cause human rights abuses, environmental degradation, and significant greenhouse gas emissions. International Energy AgencyRain-catching tubes provide new hydropower source for tropical regionsAn experiment in Singapore showed that charge separation could be established by rainwater flowing through narrow tubes. The separation, which creates a voltage, could be scaled up in regions of high rainfall to provide a clean energy source. Science NewsSolar panels can create pollinator-friendly habitats by protecting flowering plantsAn example of agrivoltaics, where land is used for solar energy production and agriculture, the panels provide clean energy while also shading plants from excessive sunlight. Pollinator-friendly plants can improve water quality and reduce soil erosion by obstructing the wind. US Department of EnergyMany chemicals used in fracking fluid have been classified as toxicAlthough the fluid has been known to leach into drinking water supplies, raising health concerns, fracking is exempt from federal clean water regulations due to a loophole in the Energy Policy Act of 2005 championed by former US Vice President Dick Cheney. The ConversationThe average electric vehicle motor has about 20 moving partsThe simpler design significantly reduces the energy lost to heat compared to the approximately 2,000 parts in a gas-powered car. Pollution is also lower, though an EV's emission profile is only as clean as the electric utility it's plugged into. TED TalksTeaching energy and climate? Check out these resourcesEnergy is a paradox: It brings us light, warmth, security, and mobility. CLEAN
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