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Roller CoastersRoller coasters are typically gravity- or inertia-powered trains that “coast” through steep drops, twists, and turns and are designed to offer thrills to amusement park visitors. The rides originated in 17th-century St. Petersburg with Russian ice slides—steep, ice-covered, wooden planks.
Roller coasters are driven by gravity and inertia. Formerly operated manually, coasters are now run by a control system or network of computers, sensors, and software that determine their position and operation.
Roller coasters activate our sympathetic nervous system, which stimulates our fight-or-flight response. Endorphins like dopamine, serotonin, and oxytocin are released, bringing riders to a euphoric state. Doing so in a safe, regulated setting allows us to enjoy the sensation, similar to what one may experience while watching a horror movie. Today, you are far more likely to be struck by lightning than harmed by an amusement ride. Explore Roller Coasters
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Visualize chaos with the orbit of three or more objects bound by gravityIn this simulation, users can simulate randomized and preset orbital configurations for up to 10 celestial bodies to observe the system's evolution in an interactive 3D space. The same configurations can produce different orbital behavior—a feature of chaos—by making small changes to an object's mass under advanced settings. TriSolarChaosModified Newtonian dynamics revises gravity to eliminate the need for dark matterRather than imagining that an undiscovered particle is responsible for discrepancies in the orbits of stars and galaxies, MOND suggests that the mathematics underlying Newton's laws of gravity and force change beyond a certain scale. However, the suggested revisions struggle to explain relativistic effects involving gravity, including gravitational lensing and gravitational waves. Space.comBlack holes form from the collapse of massive stellar cores due to gravityOver time, less energy is released from the cores of massive stars as heavier elements are created through fusion. Once iron has been fused, energy is consumed rather than created, and runaway collapse creates a dense enough region where the stellar core existed to warp spacetime into a black hole. But Why?Gravity assists are crucial for space travel beyond MarsBy traveling near a moving celestial object, a passing object can gain or lose speed and change direction due to the acceleration provided by their mutual gravity. Some missions are planned around spacecraft performing multiple assists, or slingshots, to reduce fuel requirements for long-distance travel. IFLScienceSome online users believe gravity will 'switch off' for 7 seconds in August 2026Conspiracy theorists believe NASA is preparing for the gravity blackout under a classified operation called "Project Anchor." They speculate that the purpose of the secret project is to test whether Earth can survive such an event. NASA has rejected the claim. Considering the physics of a gravity blackout, the outcome would likely be chaotic but not total destruction. The Economic TimesUnderstanding how and when time began requires a theory of quantum gravityRewinding the universe to the big bang compresses all matter, energy, space, and time into a single point, necessitating a model that combines general relativity with quantum mechanics. Although physicists understand time to have begun when the universe did, a clear understanding of the mechanisms involved remains unclear. PBS Space TimeIn a closed space, acceleration cannot be distinguished from gravityJust as pressing into a door when in a car makes a turn resembles the feeling of being pushed from the side, Albert Einstein’s equivalence principle states that being in a gravitational field feels the same as when a floor accelerates up against you, as in a rocket. Einstein OnlineGravity Probe B verified that rotating objects drag spacetimeThe experiment involved attaching four freely floating gyroscopes to a telescope aimed at a distant star for a year. The observed angular shift of the gyroscopes as a result of Earth's rotation pulling on spacetime was approximately 0.0000012 degrees from the amount predicted by general relativity. Stanford UniversityUncertainties in measurements make finding gravity's Newtonian limit unclearAlthough Newton's "universal" law is unreliable in strong gravitational fields when compared with the field equations of general relativity, it is still taught for its accuracy on everyday scales. However, gravity's effect on small scales is too weak to be measured reliably, its accuracy at atomic scales remains unknown. minutephysicsAccording to general relativity, gravity is technically not a forceForces are traditionally viewed as interactions that cause accelerations, such as the force between two magnets pulling them together or pushing them apart. General relativity reframes acceleration by describing motion along the curves of spacetime as natural, and only deviations from those paths require forces. Fermilab'Defying Gravity,' from 'Wicked,' references 'Somewhere Over the Rainbow'The melody in a crucial part of the song uses the first seven notes of "Somewhere Over the Rainbow," an intentional reference that composer Stephen Schwartz calls an "easter egg" that acknowledges the influence of the 1939 film. Classic FMWater can hover and move across hot surfaces, even against gravityThrough the Leidenfrost effect, water droplets can glide across surfaces whose temperatures are much greater than water's boiling point. This heat instantly vaporizes the bottom of the droplet, creating a layer of steam the rest of the droplet rides. ReactionsUnderstanding how gravity works at the quantum scale is physics's greatest challengeWhile the theory of general relativity explains how gravity works and quantum mechanics explains interactions at the subatomic scale, the two frameworks contradict one another. Developing a model of gravity mediated by particles can help complete the Standard Model. PBS Space TimeGravity, electromagnetism, and two nuclear forces make up nature’s fundamental forcesWhile gravity is the most familiar force, it is also the weakest and the only one without a particle to mediate the force. The weak nuclear force is responsible for radioactive decay and transmutation of elements, while the strong nuclear force holds quarks together. FermilabGeodesists define sea level using gravity rather than the ocean's heightThe sea level is not the same everywhere because the Earth isn't perfectly spherical or has a uniform composition and density. Earth's gravitational field is carefully measured to determine where the sea level would be, even in places with no water. minutephysicsEinstein created a mathematical term for anti-gravity to keep the universe staticGeneral relativity predicted that the gravity of all the matter in the universe would cause it to collapse, contradicting the belief at the time that the universe was constant and unchanging. Albert Einstein added the cosmological constant to his equations, which acted like anti-gravity, to "fix" his math. minutephysicsIf dark energy is weakening, the universe may collapse under its own gravityScientists using the Dark Energy Spectroscopic Instrument (DESI) analyzed light from 15 million galaxies and quasars to identify that the universe's accelerated expansion is diminishing. If this continues, the universe might reverse course and collapse in as little as 20 billion years. NPRHow a solar eclipse proved Einstein's theory of gravityFor hundreds of years, Isaac Newton's laws of gravity and motion accurately predicted every observation and measurement involving orbits. With the advance of technology, more precise measurements revealed anomalies, including the orbit of Mercury, which Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity could explain. This article details the two frameworks and how they went head-to-head during an eclipse for gravitational supremacy. Space.comO'Neill cylinders are free-space habitats that spin to create artificial gravityPopularize in the 1970s by Princeton physicist Gerard K. O'Neill, the 15-mile-long structures would be manufactured from lunar and asteroid materials and house human colonies. His space colony ideas have since influenced works of science fiction. Smithsonian InstitutionMicrogravity environments improve the success of 3D bioprintingGravity can cause gaps, such as those in the chambers of a 3D-printed heart, to collapse before stem cells, hydrogels, and biochemicals bind together during the bioprinting process. Rather than Earth's surface, some bioprinting is done on the International Space Station, where defective organs are also printed to test treatment methods. BBC NewsMicrogravity environments reduce muscle mass and bone densityMuscles that assist with balance and resistance to gravity are not subjected to their usual workload on the International Space Station. See the type of exercises that astronauts must complete for roughly two hours daily and learn why these movements are necessary to preserve astronauts' muscles, bones, and cardiovascular health. The VergeWhat is gravity made of?Our world at very small scales is governed by quantum mechanics, in which forces and energy come in discrete packets. At large scales, our world is governed by gravity, which moves the planets and stars and can create waves in spacetime. To merge... YouTubeGravity travels at the speed of lightIsaac Newton believed that gravity acted instantaneously between objects with mass, whereas Albert Einstein suggested that spacetime curvature reacted at the universal speed limit. Observations of colliding neutron stars by the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory in 2017 confirmed Einstein's prediction. FermilabGeneral relativity redefined gravity as the curvature of spacetimeThe breakthrough came when Albert Einstein realized that freely falling is indistinguishable from weightlessness, leading him to the principle of equivalence between gravity and acceleration. His prediction that gravity bends light was confirmed in 1919 during a solar eclipse. Arvin AshBlack holes are formed from massive stars collapsing under their own gravityThis creates a region where spacetime curves infinitely, known as a singularity. Black holes' intense mass and energy allow them to trap light, distort time and space, and present challenges with reconciling Einstein's theory with quantum mechanics. Scientific AmericanExplaining why Earth's atmosphere doesn't crush us, despite weighing 11.24 quintillion poundsGravity pulling down on over 5.1 quintillion kilograms of gases surrounding Earth's surface produces an atmospheric pressure of 15 pounds per square inch (101,325 Newtons per square meter). However, since air surrounds objects, the forces from opposing air pressures normally cancel each other out, eliminating any detectable weight. Live ScienceOscillating matter in the early universe left behind patterns detailing cosmic expansionAs gravity tried to bring matter closer together in the early universe, its high temperature produced an outward pressure that caused it to expand. These competing forces caused matter to vibrate and produce the equivalent of sound waves, which spread outward as the universe expanded and cooled, serving as relics of dark energy's history. NASA GoddardA lunar 'satellite catapult' revives a 50-year-old idea for launching rocketsElon Musk has proposed building a mass driver on the moon to fling satellites into space, exploiting low gravity to cut fuel and costs. The concept dates to 1970s space-settlement studies, highlighting how older industry ideas are resurfacing amid today's AI and space-infrastructure race. SpaceBlack holes do not 'suck' matter and energy in like a vacuum cleanerDespite its immense magnitude, the force of gravity exerted by black holes acts in the same way as provided by stars and planets, allowing objects to maintain stable orbits around them. Even in cases where tidal forces and friction cause objects to change their orbit and fall towards a black hole, they are more likely to glance by, be whipped around, and get ejected rather than absorbed. Big ThinkLIGO can detect changes in spacetime one ten-thousandth the width of a protonGravity is the weakest of the fundamental forces in nature, meaning the length of objects only changes by minuscule amounts as gravitational waves ripple through space from distant, albeit massive, cosmic events. LIGO's sensitivity can measure an object shifting its position by one seven-hundred-trillionth of the width of a human hair. Massachusetts Institute of TechnologyCompare the size of presidential residences around the globeThis video shows 3D renderings of official residences from the modest White House to sprawling estates like France's Élysée Palace and Russia's Kremlin, revealing contrasts in scale, architecture, and symbolism across nations. GravityDark comets appear to be rocky asteroids but move like cometsCometary orbits are known to exhibit accelerations independent of gravity that result from forces related to the release of gases. Dark comets exhibit this behavior but lack visible clouds of frozen material that have turned into a gas—the coma the comets display—indicating minor quantities of escaping subsurface ice. University of MichiganTurbulence is crucial to the formation of stars in molecular cloudsWithin simulations of these clouds, gravity, jets, supernovae, and galactic motion-induced stirring have been shown to develop turbulence that creates shocks. These turbulent shocks move quickly in low-density regions and slow in high-density areas, forming lumps of matter with sufficient gravitational force to collapse and initiate fusion, birthing a star. NASAExplore Albert Einstein's Zürich notebook and review his notes on relativityWithin the pages are calculations, sketches and his first attempts at deriving what would be the field equations for gravity. It also documents some dead ends and the difficulties Einstein encountered as he describes part of the mathematics of what would become general relativity, describing it as "too involved." University of PittsburghThrough gravitational redshift, light loses energy as it leaves a massive objectJust as one becomes exhausted as they walk up a flight of stairs against gravity, light is predicted to lose energy as it travels out of a gravitational well created by an object warping spacetime. This is observable through a decrease in the frequency of light toward longer, redder wavelengths. NASAExplore a visualization of curved spacetime under general relativityWhile depictions involving bends in elastic fabrics are common to illustrate gravity, they are circular representations that rely on gravity in the real world to depict gravity in the model. The river model instead shows how bends in spacetime convert speed through time into speed through space, producing acceleration. ScienceClic EnglishTo develop general relativity, Einstein relied on his college friend, Marcel GrossmanRecognizing the mathematical complexities of generalizing special relativity with a new picture of gravity and acceleration, Albert Einstein had Grossman introduce him to tensor calculus. Years before developing the precursor to GR together, Einstein would use Grossman's lecture notes to prepare for his exams. ArxivThe graviton may be the last missing piece of the Standard ModelWhile the electromagnetic, strong nuclear, and weak nuclear forces can be explained through interactions with particles, gravity is instead best modeled through spacetime curvature. Discovering a quantum particle of gravity would unite the two pillars of modern physics—quantum mechanics and general relativity—toward developing a theory of everything. PBS Space TimeCollisions between cosmic rays and atmospheric particles dwarf particle acceleratorsAccording to Einstein's model of gravity, confining immense energy into a sufficiently small region would warp space-time enough to create a black hole. If accelerators actually did create black holes, then trillions more would be produced daily in the atmosphere, where collisions are millions of times more energetic. Einstein OnlineIt is impossible for astronauts to burp in spaceDue to Earth's gravity, liquids and solids sink in our digestive system, while gases rise, allowing them to be forced back up the esophagus to be expelled through burping. In the microgravity environment of the International Space Station, burping would result in vomiting if it were possible. QuartzSlab pull and ridge push contribute to convection-driven oceanic crust movementThrough ridge push, after magma is projected up from the mantle, it cools and sinks, allowing gravity to help push older oceanic crust away. As this crust sinks into the mantle at deep-sea trenches, it pulls on the trailing crust behind it, accelerating ocean crust movement. Introduction to OceanographyExplore an interactive map of the unified theories of everythingThe map concisely describes many highly complex theories, from those involving quantum gravity and black holes to dark matter and energy. Supplementary resources, key questions, and possible solutions accompany each description. Quanta MagazineJupiter may have affected the trajectory of the asteroid that wiped out the dinosaursDespite its reputation as Earth’s cosmic shield, Jupiter’s gravity pulls more asteroids into Earth-crossing orbits. Simulations show that Earth experiences over three times more asteroid impacts because of Jupiter’s influence than if Jupiter didn’t exist. Big ThinkVoyager Station, the world's first space hotel, is planned for 2027The structure spans 488 meters in diameter and will rotate to simulate one-sixth of Earth's gravity while circumnavigating the planet every 90 minutes. The Voyager Station is designed to accommodate 450 guests and 150 crew members, providing amenities such as restaurants, a sports hall, and a movie theater. ArchiExpo e-Magazine100 of Broadway's best songsFrom the pathos of "One Day More" from "Les Misérables," to the soaring "Defying Gravity" from "Wicked," this video showcasing 100 of Broadway's best songs will keep any musical theater lover quite busy. While the list trends toward modern pieces, there are still plenty of selections from classics and Tony Award winners like "Fiddler on the Roof" and "Miss Saigon." MsMojoThe universe's expansion is accelerating due to a mysterious force called dark energyAstronomers discovered in the late 1990s that galaxies move apart faster over time, contradicting expectations that gravity should slow cosmic expansion. This prompted the revival of the "cosmological constant," a form of repulsive gravity first proposed by Albert Einstein. Perimeter Institute for Theoretical PhysicsDark matter and dark energy make up 95% of the universeDark matter holds galaxies and other large-scale structures together through gravity, and dark energy drives the universe's accelerating expansion. While scientists do not know what either is made of, they see how these dark components affect the normal matter in the universe. European Space AgencyVoyager spacecraft defied expectations and only powered down after 47 years in spaceOriginally built for a four-year mission, Voyagers 1 and 2 used a rare planetary alignment and gravity assists to reach interstellar space. With limited power and aging systems, they will continue to send data until the mid-2030s. Scientific AmericanA naked singularity is an infinitely dense point without a black hole's event horizonTheir existence would reveal where Einstein’s theory breaks down and quantum gravity takes over. The prevailing idea—cosmic censorship—suggests these singularities are always hidden behind black hole horizons, shielding the rest of the universe from their unpredictability. Quanta MagazineFalling into a black hole would stretch and shred your body beyond recognitionAs you approach a black hole, you initially feel weightless. Eventually, the difference in gravity between your feet and head would create a powerful stretching force that overcomes the molecular bonds in your body and pulls you apart. NOVA
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