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PolioPolio is an infectious disease caused by a virus that invades the nervous system. It fueled widespread panic in the early 1950s with thousands of deaths and thousands more cases of paralysis. The viral disease had been referenced in medicine and art for centuries, but scientists suggest that sanitation improvements in the 19th century delayed kids' exposure to poliovirus until later in childhood, when they no longer had maternal antibody protection—leading to more severe illness and higher paralysis rates. In 1952, at the epidemic's peak, there were 21,000 cases of paralysis and more than 3,000 deaths in the US.
The disease, formally called poliomyelitis, comes from the Greek words for gray (polios) and marrow (myelos)—a reference to the spinal cord tissue that causes the disease's characteristic paralysis when it's destroyed. There is no cure for polio. It spreads through consumption of infected stool or via respiratory droplets (from coughing or sneezing). Poliovirus multiplies in the throat and gastrointestinal tract. But if it spreads to the nervous system, it can destroy motor neurons of the anterior horn of the spinal cord and brain stem, causing paralysis.
The first polio vaccines were licensed in the US in 1955 (the inactivated polio vaccine, or IPV, which has no live virus) and 1961 (the oral poliovirus vaccine, OPV, which uses a weakened form of the live virus)—leading to a rapid drop in cases. The last US case of naturally occurring poliovirus was reported in 1979.Explore Polio
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Oral polio vaccines cause approximately 250 to 500 polio cases per year globallyLive, weakened polioviruses in the oral vaccine can very rarely mutate into a disease-causing form and lead to vaccine-associated paralytic poliomyelitis. This oral vaccine is not available in the United States. Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public HealthPost-polio syndrome occurs decades after infection but isn't contagiousAffecting adults who contracted polio as children, this disorder can occur 15 to 40 years later, leading to slow, irreversible muscle weakening. Some research estimates that between 25% and 40% of polio survivors go on to develop this condition. US Centers for Disease Control and PreventionOnly one strain of wild poliovirus continues to infect humansThree strains of polio used to regularly infect humans, but two of the strains were declared eradicated in 2015 and 2019, respectively. In 2019, world health leaders estimated complete polio eradication—if achieved—would save $14B by 2050. World Health OrganizationWastewater testing has detected genetic evidence of polio, triggering vaccine boostersSampling of wastewater in London in 2022 detected fragments of polio virus, suggesting a vaccine-derived version of polio may be circulating. No one became ill, but the finding did trigger calls for a renewed booster inoculation campaign. MedCram - Medical Lectures Explained ClearlyThe iron lung—a simple mechanical ventilator—was first used to treat polioThese breathing devices, developed in the late 1920s at Harvard, were used to treat polio patients with breathing difficulties. Watch this video describing how these negative pressure devices work. OPENPediatricsAfter FDR was paralyzed by polio in 1921, Eleanor Roosevelt became active in politics and supported his political ambitionsFDR contracted polio at age 39 and permanently lost the use of his legs. Eleanor Roosevelt persuaded him to stay in politics, then took on the task of maintaining his public profile—attending events, building relationships, and serving as his "eyes, ears, and legs" across the country. FDR Presidential Library and MuseumNeedle-free polio vaccines were offered in Afghanistan for the first time in 2026Fear of needles has been one barrier to eradicating polio in Afghanistan. Vaccinators are now using a needle-free jet injector to deliver the vaccine through the skin—an approach that's previously been used in other locations. The inoculation includes the inactivated virus vaccine (the vaccine without any live virus in it). Global Polio Eradication InitiativePolio is currently circulating in only two countries but it remains difficult to eradicateWild polio virus is only endemic in two places. Afghanistan and Pakistan are the last two countries with naturally occurring polio cases. Vaccination campaigns have been plagued by misinformation, Taliban bans on vaccines, distrust of public health workers, and violence, including the killing of vaccinators. Council on Foreign RelationsSee when the last case of wild poliovirus was found in each countryThis chart shows when wild polio cases were last reported in each country worldwide. Beyond wild poliovirus, rare outbreaks can occur related to mutated strains of oral polio vaccine. Global Polio Eradication InitiativeLive virus vaccines predated polio—that's how we vaccinate against smallpoxSince 1796, smallpox vaccines have used a live poxvirus related to smallpox. Yellow fever vaccines have used a live weakened form of the virus responsible for yellow fever since 1937. National Library of MedicineA major US-designed polio vaccine was first tested in the Soviet UnionAlbert Sabin's live attenuated virus vaccine—requiring two drops in the mouth—didn't garner political support in the US, so it was tested in the Soviet Union in the late 1950s. NPRMost polio cases today are vaccine-derived rather than naturally occuringWeakened, live virus vaccines—which aren't offered in the US—carry a risk of virus being shed in the stool. Rarely, the shed virus mutates and leads to vaccine-derived polio infections. Most recent polio cases are genetically linked to those vaccines. As shown in this graphic, there are typically hundreds of vaccine-derived polio cases annually. Our World in DataApproximately 70% of all polio infections in children are asymptomaticMost polio infections are asymptomatic or appear with only flu-like symptoms. Infected individuals can still shed the virus in their stool and mucus for days or weeks National Library of MedicineHumans are the only known reservoir of poliovirusThe virus has not been found in any other species, which makes humans the only known reservoir for polio. In laboratory settings, nonhuman primates have also been infected with the virus, but there's no evidence that they contract the virus in nature. Emerging Infectious Diseases See the polio cases that occur worldwide each year by regionWorldwide, the number of cases of polio reported each year from 1980 to 2024 has declined. This graphic depicts regional trends and declines by year. StatistaJonas Salk developed the first successful polio vaccine—and tested it on himselfThe American medical researcher developed the inactivated virus vaccine from 1952 to 1955 and proved that it could prevent disease. He tested the virus on himself and his family in 1954 and then carried out formal clinical trials on more than 1.3 million children. National Institutes of HealthInactivated polio virus vaccine is the only one offered in the US—it contains no live virusInactivated polio virus vaccines cannot cause illness because the virus isn't alive. It's been the only polio inoculation offered in the United States since 2000 and provides almost complete protection New York State Department of HealthImproved 19th-century sanitation meant kids encountered polio later, with worse resultsAlmost all children likely used to contract poliovirus, but scientists suggest that when infants encountered it very early in life—due to poorer conditions and hygiene—they still had some maternal protection from pregnancy or through breastmilk, so the symptoms were more flu-like. American Society for MicrobiologyPoliomyelitis is derived from GreekPolio, formally called poliomyelitis, comes from the Greek words for gray (polios) and marrow (myelos)—a reference to the spinal cord tissue that, when infected by the virus, causes paralysis. Our World in DataView this timeline of polio milestones and vaccine developmentPolio has a long history in art and medicine, dating back centuries. It includes a representation of an apparent polio survivor with a shriveled leg in ancient Egyptian art. See milestones in the history of polio in this timeline. Global Polio Eradication InitiativeParalysis from polio occurs in under 1% of infectionsAbout 1 in 200 cases of infection causes paralysis. For paralysis to occur, the virus travels from the throat, intestines, and gut to infect specific cells within the spinal cord and brain stem that control movements. Within hours of invading the nervous system, paralysis can occur. The virus can be present in bodily secretions and stool for multiple weeks post-infection. TED-EdPolio commonly spreads when virus-laden feces gets into our mouthsThis highly infectious disease is transmitted from one person to another, mainly when we eat virus-laden poop particles. Less frequently, contaminated food or water can transmit the virus, or people can be infected via respiratory droplets (from coughing or sneezing). World Health OrganizationPolice spending is one of the largest budget items for local governmentsLocal governments finance most of the costs for police in the US. Total state and local criminal justice spending—covering police, courts, and corrections—reaches hundreds of billions of dollars annually. Urban InstitutePolice officer salaries vary dramatically depending on where officers serveOfficer pay varies significantly across states and cities, with the highest salaries in California, New Jersey, and Washington. Factors such as local funding, cost of living, and collective bargaining agreements influence compensation. USAFactsPrince died in 2016 from an accidental fentanyl overdoseThe music legend was found dead in an elevator at his Paisley Park residence on April 21, 2016. The cause of death was an accidental overdose from taking pills he believed to be Vicodin, but were actually counterfeit pills laced with fentanyl. Law enforcement was unable to determine who provided him with those pills. He was 57 at the time of his death. Policies related to the coronavirus pandemic inadvertently increased illegal border crossingsA pandemic-era public health measure called Title 42—intended to seal the border by expelling migrants immediately—backfired. Because expulsions carried no legal consequences, migrants simply tried again, driving illegal crossings to a peak of over 370,000 people in December 2023. University of PennsylvaniaThe first 'immortal' cell line was nonconsensually taken from a Black farmerIn 1951, Henrietta Lacks went to Johns Hopkins—the only nearby facility that treated Black patients during segregation—where a portion of her tumor was sent to a lab. Seeing they doubled every day without dying, the tumor cells were spread worldwide, enabling the development of several vaccines, IVF-related research, and major cancer drugs. BBC GlobalMany politicians join private equity firms after leaving WashingtonBoth Democrats and Republicans have a history of leaving politics to work in private equity, raising concerns about the government's protection of private equity firms. ForbesExplore nuclear policy debates with this biweekly podcastHosted by Jeffrey Lewis and Aaron Stein, Arms Control Wonk offers biweekly analysis of nuclear weapons, disarmament, proliferation, and missile threats. Drawing on the hosts' deep arms‑control expertise, it makes complex security issues accessible. Arms Control WonkStalin's policies intentionally caused a devastating famine in UkraineThe Holodomor of 1932-33 was a human-made famine resulting from Stalin's grain requisition policies, killing an estimated 3 million to 4 million Ukrainians—considered by many to be an act of genocide. VoxThe COVID-19 pandemic led to a decrease in immunizations in the US and worldwidePublic health funds and resources that were diverted to COVID-19 response reduced efforts to combat polio and vaccinations for polio and other diseases declined during the pandemic, putting more people at risk for polio. University of California Davis HealthA fake vaccine campaign was used to locate Osama bin Laden, fueling vaccine distrustAs part of the intelligence operation to find bin Laden in Pakistan, the US Central Intelligence Agency recruited a Pakistani doctor who ran a fake hepatitis B vaccine campaign and obtained DNA samples from bin Laden. News of this fake campaign fueled further distrust of healthcare workers, attacks on them, and stymied efforts to vaccinate against polio in the region. The GuardianSome politicians have argued that Social Security should be privatizedSpecifically, some assert that diverting funds into self-directed retirement accounts should replace Social Security taxes and benefits to some extent in a privatized retirement savings system. This article details the pros and cons of privatizing Social Security. InvestopediaOpposing policies over immigration and sanctuary cities define the contemporary debate over federalismDisputes between the federal government, Republican-controlled states, and Democratic-controlled cities over immigration enforcement and sanctuary policies have become a central flash point in modern federalism. These conflicts will shape the future of state autonomy, federal authority, and the enforcement of national policy across jurisdictions. Wall Street JournalForeign policy and war defined Madison's presidencyDuring James Madison's presidency, disputes with Britain and France over trade, maritime rights, and impressment dominated foreign policy, culminating in the War of 1812 and shaping how the United States engaged with major European powers. UVA Miller CenterExplore policy options for reforming the Clean Water ActThe Bipartisan Policy Center brought together experts from across the political spectrum to discuss ways to expedite federal permits for energy and infrastructure projects, including updating some provisions of the Clean Water Act to reduce bureaucratic hurdles without compromising water protections. Bipartisan Policy'Our greatest responsibility is to be good ancestors.'- Polio vaccine developer Jonas Salk (1914–1995) Salk Institute for Biological StudiesLearn the history and science of influenza in 'This Podcast Will Kill You'In their flu episode, cohosts Erin Welsh and Erin Allmann Updyke unpack influenza’s biology, history, and impact—explaining everything from past pandemics to modern vaccines, all with their trademark mix of science and storytelling. This Podcast Will Kill YouThe political ideology of fascism originates in ItalyFascism—first named by Benito Mussolini in 1919—derives from the Italian word fasci, linked to the Roman fasces, symbolizing authoritarian unity. Mussolini adapted this term to represent his autocratic, ultranationalist movement. TIMEFew realized Connee Boswell used a wheelchairThe original American girl group, the Boswell Sisters, toyed with jazz standards by experimenting with challenging renditions. The group became a popular radio act during the 1920s and 1930s, with few of their fans aware that group leader Connee Boswell used a wheelchair. BBC TeachBeyond DNA, Franklin's legacy extends into modern virology and steel productionWhile remembered for her critical but under-credited role in uncovering parameters for the structure of DNA, Rosalind Franklin made significant contributions across coal chemistry and virus structure. Her research helped improve fuel efficiency, wartime protective equipment, and foundational knowledge in molecular biology. NatureBoston police told Stravinsky he had ‘tampered’ with ‘The Star-Spangled Banner’There’s no national standard for arranging the national anthem, though it can be a different story on the state level. Conductor Igor Stravinsky learned that in 1944, when the Boston police commissioner visited his dressing room to warn him about a Massachusetts law against “tampering” with national property. WPRBalancing free speech while curbing misinformation has destroyed content moderationAccusations of censorship and bias have led social media companies like Meta and X to scale back or abandon moderation tools—just as foreign propaganda surges. Researchers say their ability to track manipulation online has become severely limited. Columbia Journalism ReviewNon-Western performance art developed in its own political contextThe medium’s emerging popularity in 1990s China is a perfect example of this. Many Chinese artists incorporated the practice of meditation into their works, combining the Buddhist tradition with various modes of endurance art to comment on divisions within Chinese society and the power of the government. LEAPOrwell warned readers about how abuse of language can lead to dystopiasIn his 1946 essay, “Politics and the English Language,” Orwell argues that language is the primary tool of political control and is “designed to make lies sound truthful and murder respectable, and to give an appearance of solidity to pure wind.” The essay warns readers that how they use and consume language will dictate what they permit—or prohibit—in society. The Orwell FoundationAs of 2024, 13 states have plans to phase out gas-powered carsIn 2022, California adopted the Advanced Clean Cars II Act, which requires all new passenger cars, trucks, and SUVs sold to produce zero emissions by 2035. Other states adopted similar laws, joining more than 50 countries with phaseout plans. ColturaPolitical typology quizWhere do you fit in the political typology? Take this quiz to find out which political typology best matches your views.
Sixteen questions serve to filter political views across nine typology groups. These groups include: Progressive Left;... Pew Research CenterHow political campaigns use your dataWhat do campaigns know about US voters, and how do they use that information to shape their strategies during elections? US political campaigns base their strategies and tactics on data collected from more than 200 million voting-age Americans. This visualization by Reuters breaks down how data firms create national databases of voter files, collecting information from a variety of sources to create detailed voter profiles and how political campaigns use that data. ReutersHow public policy shapes demographic trendsThis IMF podcast explores the population booms and busts throughout human history. According to Harvard economist and demographer David Bloom, it took more than 50,000 years for the world population to reach 1 billion. But since 1960, we have added... IMFThe best political ad in history.Dr. Dwight McKenna for Coroner: Morgus ain’t got s**t on him. YouTube
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