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VolcanoesVolcanoes are openings on the surface of a terrestrial object where materials from its interior can escape. On Earth, most volcanoes are found near tectonic plate boundaries, where interactions create openings for magma—melted rock, crystals, and gases—to emerge from the mantle. Others are found over hot spots, which may result from unusually hot plumes of magma in the mantle breaking through thinner regions of the lithosphere. Volcanoes form when magma emerges from the surface at a vent, where molten rock is called lava. As the lava flows around the vent, it cools and solidifies, forming a volcano as successive layers of lava, solid rock, ash, and other pyroclastic products build over time. Variations in the characteristics of ejected material produce different types of volcanoes. Studies of volcanoes have helped identify tectonic plate boundaries, the history of Earth’s magnetic field, and the chemical composition of Earth’s interior. Explore Volcanoes

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Volcanoes in the 1340s likely helped trigger the Black DeathThe "bubonic plague" that wiped out roughly half of Europe and Asia originated from many factors. Recent research suggests volcanic eruptions contributed as well. The "aerosol" effects of matter released from eruptions likely prompted famine and accelerated the spread of infected fleas riding on grains avoiding spoilage. Popular Science Scientists monitor volcanoes with a suitcase-sized observatory called SKATEShort for Setup for the Kinematic Acquisition of Explosive Eruptions, the device is left to record heat, sound and visual data while volcanologists remain at a safe distance. The $58,000 tool is the successor to the FAMoUS (Fast Multiparametric Setup) prototype. IEEE Spectrum Extraterrestrial volcanoes spew material present during their formationUnlike Earth's volcanoes that release lava, cryovolcanoes on distant moons erupt cold jets of water, ammonia, and other light gases present during the formation of their host planet. The movement of internal heat produced during formation is thought to drive icy plume movement. Naked Science Most volcanic activity occurs in submarine volcanoes on the seafloorAt divergent plate boundaries in mid-ocean ridges, volcanic activity produces new ocean crust as the seafloor spreads. These areas are home to underwater mountains with extensive biodiversity due to redirecting ocean currents and concentrating food for marine life. NOAA Ocean Exploration Supervolcanoes can eject enough material to fill one-fourth of the Grand CanyonAlthough extremely rare, their released material can trigger winters by blocking the sun and cooling the Earth’s surface for years. The Toba supereruption 74,000 years ago disrupted food chains and reduced the human population to a few thousand. Environment Co Explore an interactive map of historical volcanoes, earthquakes, and tsunamisThe Natural Hazards Viewer allows users to map the locations of major natural hazards from 2150 BCE to the present. Advanced filters allow for various refinement methods, including volcano morphology, earthquake magnitude, tsunami height, deaths, and damage. NOAA Volcanoes can be active, dormant, or extinct based on the recency of eruptionsActive volcanoes may be in the process of erupting or expected to erupt in the future, having done so within the past 11,650 years. Dormant volcanoes have no short-term eruption history, but are expected to erupt in the future, while extinct volcanoes lack the history and expectation. USGS Could we throw trash inside volcanoes?Americans toss out about 239 million tons of garbage each year. Some have wondered whether we could toss some (or all) of it into volcanoes, where it could be destroyed. There are about 1,500 active volcanoes on Earth, and many are pretty remote, making logistics complex. This video investigates whether the idea checks out. Drawcumentaries In 2009, accidentally drilling into magma provided time capsules of volcanic glassWhile drilling for geothermal energy in Iceland's Krafla Geothermal Field, magma encountered at a depth of 2,100 meters quickly formed glass upon making contact with drilling fluid. By trapping dissolved gases, volatile chemicals, and the physical characteristics of magma before cooling, the glass acts as a time capsule of ancient volcanic activity and magmatic conditions. IFLScience View the three types of coral reefs, categorized by where they formFringing reefs—the most common type—are built from coral depositing calcium carbonate onto the seafloor closest to the shoreline. Barrier reefs grow further from and parallel to the shore, while atolls are the result of mid-ocean volcanoes or seamounts eroding away and leaving a lagoon surrounded by reefs. How It Works Daily A volcanic island north of Sicily is the world's longest continuously active volcanoStromboli has been releasing lava for at least 2,000 years, with the earliest recorded eruption dating back to 350 BCE. Its mild but ongoing bursts of bright lava have earned it the nickname, "lighthouse of the Mediterranean." IFLScience Lining up every microbe on Earth would stretch to about 105,000 light-yearsThere are about 10²⁷ such organisms on the planet, many of which are adapted to produce energy through uncommon reactions in unconventional environments, such as within rocks or near volcanoes on the ocean floor. Studies of these organisms have reframed astrobiologists' search for life beyond Earth by broadening the parameters under which life can exist. NOVA PBS Official Large igneous provinces are regions of massive ancient volcanic activityLinked to some mass extinction events on Earth, LIPs contain significant amounts of igneous rock formed by the release of lava and gases over millions of years. India's Deccan Traps and the Siberian Traps are prominent examples of LIPs, whose climate-related impacts can serve as models for analyzing modern climate change. IFLScience Many believe a cataclysmic volcanic eruption is imminent at Yellowstone, though experts say it is unlikelyMike Poland, a scientist at the Yellowstone Volcano Observatory, estimates the likelihood of the event at one in a million. He cautions, though, that the park poses other potential dangers, including steam explosions and earthquakes. Unexplainable Unique species evolved independently on each Galápagos islandThe islands formed over millions of years because of a hot spot in the Nazca Plate, where magma breaks through and forms volcanoes. As these islands drifted, plants and animals became secluded, making each island its own an isolated experiment that would influence Charles Darwin's theory of evolution. InsideHook Explore a world map of MarsThe yellows spots scattered across the map indicate meteor impacts while the red regions represent volcanoes and their associated lava flows. The varying shades of brown indicate cratered highlands and midlands, which make up most of the southern hemisphere. Visual Capitalist As much as 35% of volcanic eruptions are accompanied by lightningColloquially referred to as "dirty lightning," the electrostatic discharge is fueled by the movement of volcanic ash and gases, which facilitate charge separation. The phenomenon was first described during Mount Vesuvius' eruption in 79 CE. ZME Science Volcanic activity can lead to the formation of fertile soilsEjected rock can introduce key minerals found in fertilizers, including iron, magnesium, and potassium, to improve soil quality. Ash and basalt crystals can be easily absorbed into soils, infusing them with sulfur, oxygen, chlorine, phosphorus, calcium, and other critical elements. WorldAtlas View the 10 biggest volcanic eruptions in recorded historyThe Mount Tambora eruption in 1815 was the deadliest and released so much sun-blocking ash and gas that 1816 became known as “the year without summer.” The resulting global food shortages are estimated to have killed over 71,000 people. BBC Science Focus Magazine Human activities release 100 times the carbon dioxide of all volcanic eruptionsWhile gases released by volcanoes contribute to climate change, humans produce the carbon dioxide equivalent of a Mount St. Helens-sized eruption every 2.5 hours, or more than one Yellowstone eruption yearly, even though such supervolcanoes only erupt about every 100,000 to 200,000 years or more. NASA Eruption forecasting relies on probabilistic methods resembling weather forecastingWhile some volcanoes erupt with predictable signs, such as surface deformation from the build-up of underground magma pressure, others release magma at inconsistent rates. Extensive monitoring is needed to identify less clear patterns and indicators of future eruptions. Frontiers for Young Minds The friction between moving volcanic ash and smoke can produce lightningAs this volcanic material rises, it cools and descends, and competing flows strip electrons from atoms, building up static electricity. The bursts of electrical discharge are sometimes referred to as dirty lightning and can reach temperatures exceeding 16,500 degrees Celsius (29,700 degrees Fahrenheit). AccuWeather Pyroclastic flows, not lava, are often the deadliest aspect of volcanic eruptionsReaching temperatures up to 1,000°C, these “clouds” carry thousands of kilograms of volcanic ash, gas, and rock near the ground away from volcanoes. Research shows these flows achieve speeds as high as 700 kilometers per hour by moving above a lubricating layer of gas. Nature Video View a gallery of diagrams for each volcano type with glossariesThe three major types of volcanoes—cinder cone, composite, and shield—each exhibit unique, lesser-known subterranean and surface features, including lava bombs, lahars, and spatter. Other types of volcanoes include lava domes, calderas, fissure volcanoes, and Maars and tuff rings. National Park Service Lava flow viscosity plays a significant role in the type of volcano formedThin, runny flows spread quickly before cooling, producing expansive layers that build over time into wide shield volcanoes. The ejection and fast hardening of thicker lava flows and pyroclastic material create steep slopes and the characteristic cone shape of composite volcanoes. Visual Capitalist The composition of magma affects the explosivity of volcanic eruptionsSilicate-rich magma contains extensive molecular chains that trap dissolved gases like water and carbon dioxide. These gases build pressure until they violently escape, creating explosive eruptions. Low-silica magmas produce gentler eruptions categorized as effusive. The Geological Society Tsunamis are caused by sudden seafloor shifts displacing waterEarthquakes of magnitude 7.0 with hypocenters within 100 km of the seafloor can vertically shift large sections of the seafloor significantly. This seismic activity is more commonly found in subduction zones, where an oceanic plate sinks beneath a continental one. NOAA The Ring of Fire is the most geologically active zone on EarthSpanning 40,000 kilometers as it circles the Pacific Ocean, the region experienced about 90% of the world’s earthquakes and contains over 70% of its active volcanoes. The horseshoe-shaped belt features convergent, divergent, and transform plate boundaries. National Geographic Simulate geological activity at plate boundariesYou are given a planetary model with optional rock formation and your choice of the number of tectonic plates and their densities. Draw continents, assign forces and plate boundary types, and run the simulation across map types to observe earthquakes, volcanoes, and other geological activity. Concord Consortium View maps of seafloor topography, earthquakes, and volcanic activityEarthquakes and volcanoes are most common at plate boundaries, where moving plates interact. Mapping the locations of these events creates outlines for the different tectonic plates on Earth, whose movements can be tracked via GPS satellites. National Park Service Mid-ocean ridges are underwater volcano systems where tectonic plates divergeNew ocean crust is formed at these ridges as magma rises from Earth’s mantle and fills the space between the spreading plates. The speed of divergence influences ridge shape, with slow spreads forming rugged valleys and fast spreading creating smooth, wide slopes. NOAA Ocean Exploration Earth is the only planet in our solar system with fireAnd while the sun seems like fire, and other planets have volcanoes, the sun and lava aren't the same thing as fire. To produce fire, a planet needs three ingredients: oxygen, fuel, and heat. No other planet has all three. PBS Eons Humans were forced to adapt to survive a supervolcano eruption 74,000 years agoThe Toba supereruption ejected 2800 cubic kilometers of ash, resulting in global cooling from blocked sunlight and acid rain. Archaeological sites show that humans developed bow-and-arrow technology to survive in arid conditions by fishing in seasonal waterholes. The Conversation Ceres—the largest object in the asteroid belt—may have once harbored a muddy oceanNASA's Dawn mission revealed Ceres' surface composition, which contains salts, water ice, and organic material. Ceres' ocean likely froze over entirely in the past, when the presence of water may have allowed life to exist. Big Think The average eruption cycle of the Yellowstone supervolcano is 735,000 yearsEruptions a little over 2 million, 1.3 million, and 630,000 years ago indicate that the eruption is not imminent, though the sample size is small. Recent analysis reveals magma pockets are not interconnected, reducing eruption risk. BBC Science Focus Fly through the Valles Marineris, the largest canyon in the solar systemStretching farther than the width of the continental US and with depths as much as four times those of the Grand Canyon, the Valles Marineris is believed to have formed when Mars’s crust tore open during intense volcanism in the planet’s past. VideoFromSpace View the first photos ever taken from the Martian surfaceNASA's Viking 1 landed on Mars on July 20, 1976, with Viking 2 following on September 3, 1976. The two captured 4,500 images of Mars as the first spacecraft to land and transmit data from the Red Planet successfully. History Io, Jupiter’s moon, is the most volcanically active body in the solar systemThe innermost and third-largest of Jupiter’s four Galilean moons, Io’s volcanic activity is driven by tidal heating from Jupiter’s gravitational pull. Its atmosphere is very thin and primarily composed of sulfur dioxide, and its volcanic eruptions can exceed 1,000°C. The Planetary Society Ten US spots to see super blue waterMuch of the ocean coasts of the US are full of upswelled biological murk, opaque and dark. But in some spots, where its fairly calm and the sand is settled and white, the water is sparkling blue. Notable locations include Crater Lake in Oregon or Dry Tortugas National Park in Florida. Travel + Leisure The volcano threatening the Greek island of SantoriniSantorini is a popular tourist destination, known for its stunning white architecture and dreamy blue waters. Yet underneath the charming island is a potentially dangerous underwater volcano. Recent earthquakes have triggered nearly half of residents to evacuate, signaling heightened uncertainty about when the volcano could erupt. Researchers studying activity in the region plan to produce detailed hazard maps for Greek authorities to improve local safety and emergency planning. BBC A nearby super volcano poses an even greater risk to Italy than VesuviusThe Campi Flegrei supervolcano, with over half a million residents nearby, may be the region’s true threat. This BBC short shows how scientists monitor Campania’s volatile geology—and why people remain drawn to the landscape despite the danger. BBC News Vesuvius has erupted nearly 40 times since PompeiiWith a 17,000-year history and dozens of eruptions since 79 CE, Vesuvius sits atop volatile geological forces that make it an unusually explosive volcano. This explainer breaks down why the volcano remains dangerous today. Science Museum of Virginia Volcanologist survives 5 eruptions while living on Mount VesuviusAs physicist Luigi Palmieri ducked around lava flowing down the slopes of Mount Vesuvius, he also solidified the field of volcanology. This article details his contribution to science through his dangerous ventures to the volcano that buried Pompeii... Scientific American The history of Earth's breathable atmosphere, made possible by photosynthetic bacteriaBetween 3.2 and 2.8 billion years ago, threadlike microorganisms called cyanobacteria began consuming available water vapor, carbon dioxide, and sunlight to produce oxygen. However, molecules released from Earth's interior by volcanoes consumed this oxygen via chemical reactions, preventing it from accumulating until volcanism had sufficiently decreased about 2.4 billion years ago. Ars Technica Watch Italy's Stromboli volcano eruptThe Stromboli volcano off the Sicilian coast erupted, sending up plumes of smoke and spilling lava into the sea. Watch it here. YouTube Photo captures the Northern Lights above an erupting volcanoThis is a once-in-a-lifetime photo that proves yet again how magical Mother Nature is! My Modern Met

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