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Greenhouse GasesGreenhouse gases are molecules that absorb thermal radiation emitted by a planet and emit it in all directions, including back to the planet's surface. Unlike the various types of light that a planet can reflect, this emitted planetary radiation is primarily a smaller subset of the electromagnetic spectrum (e.g., infrared). By acting as a blanket that prevents some of this energy from escaping to space, a planet warms in a phenomenon called the greenhouse effect.
In the early 1800s, as scientists began developing the field of thermodynamics to improve the efficiency of steam engines, an analysis of Earth revealed it to be much warmer than expected. Sunlight alone was shown to be insufficient, and the atmosphere was hypothesized to act as an insulator. By mid-century, experiments showed that some atmospheric gases, including water vapor and carbon dioxide, could absorb and emit some infrared radiation—the kind emitted by Earth's surface—significantly altering the planet's climate.
Despite greenhouse gases accounting for less than 0.04% of the Earth's atmosphere, average surface temperatures would be about 33 degrees Celsius (59 degrees Fahrenheit) lower without them. However, atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations have increased by over 50% since before the Industrial Revolution—primarily driven by the burning of fossil fuels—causing a rise in average surface temperatures during the same period.Explore Greenhouse Gases
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How greenhouse gases and climate change impact the efficiency of photosynthesisA review in the Journal of Experimental Botany found that higher temperatures reduce the efficiency of enzymes involved in photosynthesis and impair a plant's ability to control water loss and regulate carbon dioxide uptake. While increased carbon dioxide levels are understood to accelerate plant growth by boosting photosynthesis, researchers suggest these effects more than offset the potential gain. University of Illinois Urbana-ChampaignCarbon sinks absorb more greenhouse gases than they produceThe largest on Earth are oceans, which capture 25% of all carbon emissions and 90% of excess atmospheric thermal radiation while generating half of the world's oxygen. Wildfires and deforestation have reduced forests' net sink capacity, though fungi are believed to capture and store over a third of global carbon emissions. World Economic ForumThe impact of greenhouse gases is assessed as a measure of Global Warming PotentialSince 1990, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has used GWP to measure how much energy 1 metric ton of a gas emits over a given period—usually 100 years—relative to 1 metric ton of carbon dioxide. By definition, carbon dioxide has a GWP of 1. EPAFluorinated molecules are the most impactful, longest-lasting greenhouse gasesDeveloped as replacements for ozone-depleting substances in refrigeration and air conditioning systems, these compounds are released through leaks in and ongoing use of these appliances, as well as from various industrial processes. They can remain in the atmosphere for thousands of years and have warming potentials that are a thousand to tens of thousands of times greater than those of carbon dioxide. EPAWithout greenhouse gases, Earth's average surface temperature would be below freezingAtmospheric molecules that absorb and emit infrared radiation from the planet's surface effectively trap additional incident solar energy that would otherwise escape to space. Without the greenhouse effect, the planet's average surface temperature would be approximately -18 degrees Celsius (0 degrees Fahrenheit). NASAExcluding water vapor, greenhouse gases make up less than 1% of Earth's atmosphereAlthough carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, ozone, and most fluorinated gases account for only a minority of the planet's greenhouse effect due to their lower concentrations, they are more effective at trapping thermal radiation. While water vapor condenses within two weeks, other greenhouse gases linger in the atmosphere for years on average. NASAGeometry and uneven charge distribution make some molecules greenhouse gasesMolecules vibrate and rotate with different frequencies based on their elemental composition and shape, which can produce uneven distributions of electrons. The resulting unbalanced electric field can interact with electromagnetic waves of the same frequency, causing the molecule to absorb the radiation. ReactionsOceans absorb 90% of warming from greenhouse gasesOceans are providing increasingly more energy to power hurricane intensity. Current projections show rapid intensification is becoming more common, increasing the likelihood of Category 4 and 5 storms. The Weather ChannelGreenhouse gases from farming are driven by meatThe food we eat contributes to one-third of global greenhouse gas emissions caused by human activities, according to two studies published in 2021. These emissions come from various sources along the food production chain, including transportation,... Science NewsAtmospheric greenhouse gases trap thermal energy and make Earth habitableThe moon and Earth are at the same distance from the sun, but the moon experiences large fluctuations in surface temperature because it lacks an atmosphere to insulate it. Gases such as water vapor, ozone, carbon dioxide, and methane can intercept about 90% of the infrared radiation emitted by Earth's surface. MinuteEarthWhy David Attenborough was skeptical about global warming before bringing attention to itBelieving he was "experiencing the untouched natural world" in his early documentary series, Attenborough has admitted that many of his assumptions about human action were incorrect. It was not until attending a 2004 lecture on greenhouse gases and global temperatures that he became convinced of the science. Discover WildlifeUnderwater volcanoes significantly contributes to marine extinctions during the Triassic period An analysis of ocean basins in the Tibetan Plateau helped identify three major periods of volcanism—250-248, 233-231, and 210-208 million years ago—which released significant amounts of greenhouse gases, altering ocean chemistry. The low-oxygen conditions may help explain half of Earth's Triassic extinctions. Discover MagazineAbout 99% of Earth's atmosphere is made of nitrogen and oxygenAt 78% and 21% respectively, the two elements are followed by argon with almost 1%. Trace amounts of other molecules, including greenhouse gases such as methane and carbon dioxide, and particulate matter such as dust and pollen, make up the remainder of the atmosphere's contents. GeeksforGeeksArctic permafrost may store twice as much carbon as the entire atmosphereRising greenhouse gas concentrations are expected to continue to increase average global temperatures and threaten to thaw ground that has been frozen for thousands of years. The release of greenhouse gases from remnant organic matter would exacerbate the greenhouse effect, creating a positive feedback loop. Massachusetts Institute of TechnologyCarbon dioxide is the most produced greenhouse gas from human activitiesIn 2022, about 79.7% of US greenhouse gas emissions were carbon dioxide, produced through chemical reactions in processes such as cement production and the burning of fossil fuels, solid waste, trees, and other biological materials. Methane (11.1%), nitrous oxide (6.1%), fluorinated gases (3.1%), and trace amounts of solid and liquid aerosol were also created. EPAYearly greenhouse gas emissions have been steadily increasing since 1850Although greenhouse gases include methane, nitrous oxide, and most fluorinated compounds, their warming potential is often measured relative to carbon dioxide. In these units, greenhouse gas emissions have gone from 4.29 billion metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalent in 1850 to 54.43 billion metric tons in 2024. Our World in DataSpace tourism rockets emit up to 100 times more CO₂ per passenger than airplanesRocket launches release significant amounts of water vapor, nitrous oxide, and rocket propellants, which generate greenhouse gases and air pollutants. High-altitude emissions can persist for years, affecting the ozone layer. ideas.ted.comMartian skies and sunsets resembled Earth's hundreds of millions of years agoEvidence suggests that Mars has had a thicker atmosphere, which included greenhouse gases, and a magnetic field in its past, resembling Earth's current composition. After losing its magnetic field—the protection from solar wind—the atmosphere and its associated atmospheric phenomena gradually disappeared. Be SmartThe cycling of carbon via tectonic activity may have facilitated life on EarthPlates sinking into Earth’s mantle pull carbon from the surface, helping stabilize the atmosphere and climate by removing greenhouse gases from volcanic eruptions. At the same time, magma is a significant contributor of heavy metals and other crucial minerals for life to the surface. Live ScienceExplore a series of interdisciplinary explainers on climate scienceFrom animations on the quantum mechanics of greenhouse gases to a photo essay on how scientists acquire climate data, this collection provides detailed explorations of how different branches of science have contributed to our understanding of climatology. Quanta MagazineView an illustrative guide to climate change for kidsWhile climates have changed throughout Earth's history, they are now changing faster than usual, driven by the burning of fossil fuels and the release of greenhouse gases, which trap more of the sun's radiation. The New York TimesSimulate the effects of government policies on climate projectionsThe En-ROADS tool lets you role-play as a global decision maker to explore the long-term effects of various policy ideas on climate. More than 341,000 people worldwide, including over 130 members of Congress, have used the simulation. Climate InteractiveExplore hindcasting on climate models published since 1972Hindcasting tests model forecasts against observational data to determine their accuracy. In this interactive, you can learn about the differences between eight climate models and evaluate them against available climate data. King's Center for Visualization in ScienceGCMs simulate Earth system interactions and how human activity impacts climateBy splitting the planet into tiny 3D grid cells, supercomputers can run thousands of equations for each cell to determine the movement of energy, moisture, and other elements across Earth. The equations can also incorporate greenhouse gases to determine how humans affect the climate. South Central Climate Adaptation Science CenterClimate models use complex equations and supercomputers to predict future climateThe equations apply the laws of thermodynamics, fluid motion, and radiative transfer to a 3D grid along Earth's surface. After solving them for each cell in the grid over a time interval, the results carry over to neighboring cells, and the process repeats into the future. NOAAView the 55 ECVs used to describe Earth's atmospheric conditionsEssential climate variables include physical, chemical, and biological variables that meaningfully contribute to Earth's climate and how it changes with time. Many of these variables influence one another through feedback mechanisms across Earth's atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, biosphere, and geosphere. World Meteorological OrganizationData suggests fossil fuels are the dirtiest and most dangerous energy sourcesAlthough all energy sources have trade-offs, fossil fuels emit the most greenhouse gases per unit of energy and have the highest rate of accidents. Low-carbon energy sources—including nuclear power—have the lowest death rates and fewest adverse climatic effects. Our World in DataWhat threats are the tundra facing?This article discusses the threats endangering the tundra, including climate change, air pollution, and human industrial activities. Climate change is causing permafrost in the tundra to thaw, releasing greenhouse gases and contributing to a cycle... National Geographic SocietyMethane: the other greenhouse gasWhile most of the focus with respect to greenhouse gases lands on carbon dioxide, methane is the second most potent contributor. The gas, a carbon atom with four hydrogen atoms, is 25 times more potent than CO2 in terms of trapping heat over a 100... ReutersGreenhouse gas emissions from human activity accelerate recent global warmingThese gases exacerbate the greenhouse effect—warming that results when the atmosphere traps heat radiating from Earth toward space. The most abundant atmospheric greenhouse gas is carbon dioxide, which is released from the burning of fossil fuels. NASAHow Earth's 'greenhouse effect' worksThe so-called "greenhouse effect," where various gases in Earth's atmosphere trap heat from the sun, is a crucial factor in our planet's ability to sustain life. It's also pivotal in discussions over humanity's impact on changes in the Earth's... British Geological SurveyWhat should you eat to help the climate?Climate change is impacted by what we eat and what we don't eat. Did you know, for instance, that livestock accounts for 14.5 percent of the world’s greenhouse gases each year? Eating less meat and dairy and more protein-rich plants like beans,... The New York TimesPlant based milk is good for the planet, but not quite as good for youRising in popularity, plant-based milks are a practical alternative for consumers concerned about sustainability and climate change. Plant-based milks, such as oat, almond, rice, and soy milk, generate about one-third of the greenhouse gases and use... Science NewsWhat’s the best way to reduce climate impact of food?Food is a big part of everyone’s carbon footprint, and it’s important to understand the impact of our personal food consumption. Individual food choices can emit as many greenhouse gases as personal electricity use. Plant-based diets generally... The ConversationWatch a visualization of New York City's greenhouse gas emissionsAbout 1.72 tons of carbon dioxide-equivalent gases are released into the atmosphere every second in the Big Apple, enough to fill a balloon 33 feet across at standard pressure and 59 degrees Fahrenheit. After a day, the spheres would pile up into a pyramid whose base spans from the bottom of Manhattan to the south of Central Park. Real World VisualsHow is the climate like baseball?A two-minute video taking a lighthearted look at an unexpected analogy, explaining why some people call carbon dioxide (and the other greenhouse gases) the steroids of the climate system. YouTubeDiscover trends in Earth's climate system: What are indicators of climate change?A comprehensive deep dive tracking components of the climate system over time, such as temperature, sea level, sea ice amounts, ocean heat, greenhouse gases, and more (w/charts and graphs). NOAA
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