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Human Genome ProjectThe Human Genome Project was an international collaboration to map all the genetic information found in humans and several organisms of importance in biological research. The HGP was proposed in the mid-1980s as a joint initiative by the National Institutes of Health and the US Department of Energy to identify the genetic cause of illnesses and the genetic effects of radiation and energy-related chemicals.
From 1990 to 2003, more than 2,000 scientists from universities and research facilities worldwide sequenced more than three billion base pairs of a genetic tapestry built from 20 individuals from Buffalo, New York. The composite genome was cut into fragments, which were sent to 20 sequencing centers, processed, and combined on computers to reassemble.
The project would end with publishing a 92%-complete human genome sequence, which would be finalized thanks to new technologies in 2022.Explore Human Genome Project
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View a collection of historical documents about molecular biology's historyThe collection features materials related to those involved in the discovery of DNA and provides historical context for the discoveries of RNA, various viruses, and important bioproteins. The items include photographs, business correspondence, manuscripts, and scientific instruments. Science History InstituteEvery human being shares 99.9% of the same DNAThe remaining 0.1% provides all the diversity seen in our species, but some individuals can also contain multiple sets of DNA. How is this possible, and why does some of our DNA contain remnants of viruses? Click the title of this resource to learn about DNA. 1440Scientists used mass spectrometry to determine the materials in a 1690 paintingPreviously used to map the distribution of molecules on biological tissue samples, researchers combined the technique with machine learning to uncover six layers of pigments, binders, and a thin gold leaf layer within *The Marriage of the Virgin*, from a collection in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. The technique may help identify and track artists' material use to learn about pieces of unknown provenance. (Some readers may experience a paywall.) Chemical & Engineering NewsCells modify their internal spacing to improve biochemical reaction efficienciesStudies involving microscopy and genetic engineering tools in yeast and human cells show ribosomes act as crowding agents—much like packing peanuts—and their concentrations are actively tuned to alter the rate of cellular functions. However, these concentrations and cell crowding levels vary across different tissues and cell types. Quanta MagazineThe structure of DNA helices comes in three major varietiesThe hereditary molecule can take the form of A-DNA, B-DNA, or Z-DNA based on environmental conditions such as ion concentration and humidity—a characteristic identified by Rosalind Franklin. A-DNA is the shortest and widest of the three, while Z-DNA is the longest and narrowest. B-DNA—the most common variety in living cells—is the intermediate. ChemTalkRNA may have allowed life to exist before DNAThe emergence of living organisms from non-living matter—abiogenesis—requires both a molecule that encodes genetic information and proteins that perform biochemical processes. However, because DNA and protein depend on one another, some biologists theorize that RNA, which can both store information and perform functions, preceded both and originated life. NOVA PBS OfficialA weed from the mustard family facilitated the molecular era of botanyThe small genome and rapid growth cycle of Arabidopsis thaliana have made it an ideal organism for genetic studies, with over 100,000 research papers exploring topics such as disease resistance, stress tolerance, and response to light. The first studies were done on plants that grew from seeds saved during the Hungarian Uprising of 1956. Knowable Magazine | Annual ReviewsA Venus flytrap's hairs convert sensory touch into electrical signalsA stretch-activated ion channel called DmMSL10 acts as an amplifier, converting grazing contact into a strong impulse that the plant uses to react and close its jaw. To distinguish prey from raindrops or other stimuli, the jaw only closes when the hairs are touched twice in quick succession. ZME ScienceDeep sea fish rely on a molecular strengthener to prevent being crushedTrimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO) stabilizes hydrogen bonds and prevents water and proteins within organisms from being misshapen under immense pressure. Compounds called piezolytes protect cellular membranes from being crushed in regions like the Mariana Trench, where pressures are 1,100 times greater than surface atmospheric pressure. IFLScienceDoctors use three key physical markers to determine biological aging The length of the ends of chromosomes (known as "telomeres"), the gradual change in collections of DNA molecules called "methyl groups", and the secretion of inflammatory proteins are all used as indicators of biological age. TED-EdBiological terraforming studies have been conducted at Biosphere 2The experiments involve populating barren hillslopes within the Landscape Evolution Observatory with microbes that react with air and rock to produce molecules needed by more complex organisms. Mosses and other simple plants can then grow in these spaces, gradually making them more hospitable to humans. The ConversationTardigrades’ intrinsically disordered proteins may help preserve biological matterResearchers have attempted to create more drought-resistant crops by introducing proteins that help protect tardigrades in their dehydrated tun state. The proteins’ ability to stabilize molecular degradation may allow scientists to develop refrigeration-free storage for vaccines, insulin, and blood. WiredSome organisms are composed of a single cell visible to the naked eyeBy incorporating tough, cellulose-rich cell walls, rapid movement of molecules via cytoplasmic streaming, and other biological techniques, some unicellular organisms can bypass the physical limitations that restrict the size of cells. Organisms such as the Stentor coeruleus and Acetabularia can be seen without microscopes. SciShowView examples of luciferin, the light-emitting molecule behind bioluminescenceBioluminescent marine organisms rely on various unique luciferins, including Cypridina-type luciferin in seed shrimp and chlorophyll-based dinoflagellate luciferin, to react with oxygen to produce light. These chemicals require unique catalysts to help them bind with oxygen. UC Santa BarbaraDNA computing allows for storage and processing of massive amounts of data Although costly and less efficient for simpler tasks, as of 2025, DNA could hold 455 exabytes of data with near limitless parallel computation potential in small data centers. Every movie ever made would fit inside the volume of a single sugar cube. PluralsightBiosignatures are the chemical fingerprints astrobiologists search for to find lifeThe 21st century has introduced advances making telescopes, cameras, and computers powerful enough to detect the presence of molecules associated with biological processes in distant atmospheres, expanding the search for life to include unreachable worlds. The Planetary SocietyExercise changes your genes without changing your DNAPhysical activity can turn beneficial genes on and harmful genes off, without altering the underlying DNA code. This engaging article explains the epigenetic mechanisms that take place with exercise and ultimately result in improved metabolism, lower inflammation, and optimized brain function. Science Connected MagazineBeyond DNA, Franklin's legacy extends into modern virology and steel productionWhile remembered for her critical but under-credited role in uncovering parameters for the structure of DNA, Rosalind Franklin made significant contributions across coal chemistry and virus structure. Her research helped improve fuel efficiency, wartime protective equipment, and foundational knowledge in molecular biology. NatureExploring carbon compound pore structures contributed to improved gas mask filtrationDuring World War II, the British Coal Utilisation Research Association sought to improve the efficiency of coal as an energy source and studied the effectiveness of charcoal filters to keep soldiers safe. Rosalind Franklin's research there formed the basis of her PhD and led to five scientific papers. NIHReceptors on the cell surface are key to whether a virus is successfulViral receptors are key regulators of host range, tissue tropism, and viral pathogenesis—basically, the door locks on cells allowing viruses to invade, if they have the right key. How this process works at the microscopic level determines whether a virus is able to trigger a widespread illness in the host. Journal of Molecular BiologyComplex molecular reactions in our tissues cause muscle contractionWhen we want to move a muscle, a signal travels from the brain and into the muscle cells in question, sparking a chemical reaction that causes the muscle's smallest contractile units—sarcomeres—to shorten, forcing the muscle to contract. Interactive BiologyChronobiologists study the effect of time on biological cyclesCircadian rhythms were first observed in the 1700s, when French astronomer Jean-Jacques D'Ortous de Mairan put a plant in a dark room and watched it still respond to day and night cycles, setting off further studies about specific light-dark biological cycles, an area of inquiry that continues today with the human "clock proteins" at the molecular level. QuantaTaste buds are found throughout the body, with different biological functionsAs biological structures, taste receptors take in molecules, analyze them, and send signals to the brain letting us know what they've found. This functionality makes them useful throughout the body, most notably in the gut where receptors act as glucose sensors. Knowable MagazineSynthetic biology transforms cells into custom DNA foundriesAt companies like Ginkgo Bioworks, researchers are reprogramming cells to act as workshops that can create custom molecules, such as medicines and fertilizers, by stitching together DNA sequences—often in novel combinations—before inserting them into an organism's genome. Seeker
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