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MarsMars is the fourth terrestrial (or rocky) planet from the sun and Earth's closest planetary neighbor, at an average distance of 225 million kilometers. It is about half the size of Earth, contains a fraction of its atmosphere, and has two irregularly shaped moons: Phobos and Deimos.
Mars’ most salient feature, its red color, is the result of a rusted, iron-rich surface. The planet’s northern regions are significantly lower in elevation and feature fewer craters, while the south is higher and more rugged, suggesting that the north's surface formed more recently. Mars’ thin atmosphere, which consists almost entirely of carbon dioxide, allows the sun’s intense ultraviolet rays to hit the surface unimpeded. However, the planet's average surface temperature is about -62 degrees Celsius (or -80 degrees Fahrenheit).
NASA aims to land humans on Mars in the 2030s, which would require astronauts to harvest subterranean ice deposits for water, compress the atmosphere to grow plants, and deploy weather-independent power systems.Explore Mars
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The formation and breakup of Pangaea altered Earth’s geology and biodiversityComing from the Greek words for “all” (pan) and “Earth” (gaia), the supercontinent existed from about 320 million to 195 million years ago. The tectonic activity that split Pangaea into today’s continents may one day bring the continents back together, forming Pangaea Proxima. Live ScienceSoar above the Jurassic Coast’s 185 million years of geologyThis sweeping drone video reveals the stark beauty of the UK’s Jurassic Coast, a 95-mile stretch where Triassic red rock, Jurassic layers, and Cretaceous limestone are exposed—one of the clearest visible records of the Mesozoic era on Earth. Jack BoothbySee top-down views of Washington state's geology with cutting-edge lidarLidar is a revolutionary tool that creates visual models of landscapes using rapid light pulse measurements. Geologists in Washington state have deployed the technology to study the state's fault lines, landslides, tsunami inundation zones, and much more. ArcGIS'The earth is rude, silent, incomprehensible at first, Nature is rude and incomprehensible at first,
Be not discouraged, keep on, there are divine things well envelop'd.'- Poet Walt Whitman (1819-1892) Earth Science Club of Northern IllinoisA volcanic island north of Sicily is the world's longest continuously active volcanoStromboli has been releasing lava for at least 2,000 years, with the earliest recorded eruption dating back to 350 BCE. Its mild but ongoing bursts of bright lava have earned it the nickname, "lighthouse of the Mediterranean." IFLSciencePaleontologists apply rules about rock layering, fossilization, and radioactivity to date geological samplesConcepts such as the understanding that older rock layers will form beneath newer ones allow scientists to compare the ages of samples from various layers. Although no geological site preserves evidence across all time, samples can be combined with fossils of known age, such as those dated by analyzing the decay of their radioactive isotopes, to reconstruct Earth's timeline. The Science of EverythingA new field of tektites in Brazil Astronomy MagazineGeological tremors on the moon provide evidence that it is shrinkingApollo seismometers have collected moonquake data, which scientists have analyzed to map the moon's interior and reveal that fault slips producing tremors are the result of sublunar cooling and contraction. It also revealed that the moon's inner core is about 500 kilometers (311 miles) across. IFLScienceBoomerang earthquakes reverse direction and ripple back the way they cameComputer simulations show that rapid changes in friction along a fault where an earthquake has traveled for long distances can produce a smaller quake in the opposite direction. Data consistent with the phenomena has only been recorded a handful of times from 2011 to 2023. Discover MagazineLarge igneous provinces are regions of massive ancient volcanic activityLinked to some mass extinction events on Earth, LIPs contain significant amounts of igneous rock formed by the release of lava and gases over millions of years. India's Deccan Traps and the Siberian Traps are prominent examples of LIPs, whose climate-related impacts can serve as models for analyzing modern climate change. IFLScienceMetal detectors identify induced magnetic fields in conductive objectsA changing magnetic field in a transmitter coil causes an electric current to be produced in materials that conduct electricity. This current generates its own magnetic field, which can be detected by a receiver coil and transmitted to a control box, which identifies the presence and depth of an object. MetalDetector.comA 37.41 carat, bicolor diamond likely formed from two distinct geological processesDiscovered in a Botswana mine, half the stone is clear, having formed from carbon being squeezed under extreme heat and pressure into a tight crystal structure. The pink half formed earlier and resulted from minor bending of the crystal during tectonic activity without causing it to brown or break. ZME ScienceExplore a world map of MarsThe yellows spots scattered across the map indicate meteor impacts while the red regions represent volcanoes and their associated lava flows. The varying shades of brown indicate cratered highlands and midlands, which make up most of the southern hemisphere. Visual CapitalistExplore over 46,000 pages of Charles Darwin's manuscriptsThe American Museum of Natural History hosts almost 35,000 digitized folios related to evolution within the fields of botany and zoology from Darwin's Beagle voyage. High-resolution color images, geological findings, and annotated books from Darwin's personal library are also viewable. American Museum of Natural HistoryThe Kidd Creek Mine in Canada houses the world's oldest isolated waterThe mine sits on the Precambrian Canadian Shield—an ocean floor dating back 2.7 billion years. Exhibiting a musty smell, the water is 10 times saltier than seawater and offers insights into Earth’s ancient seabed. ZME ScienceAs much as 35% of volcanic eruptions are accompanied by lightningColloquially referred to as "dirty lightning," the electrostatic discharge is fueled by the movement of volcanic ash and gases, which facilitate charge separation. The phenomenon was first described during Mount Vesuvius' eruption in 79 CE. ZME ScienceVolcanic activity can lead to the formation of fertile soilsEjected rock can introduce key minerals found in fertilizers, including iron, magnesium, and potassium, to improve soil quality. Ash and basalt crystals can be easily absorbed into soils, infusing them with sulfur, oxygen, chlorine, phosphorus, calcium, and other critical elements. WorldAtlasThe friction between moving volcanic ash and smoke can produce lightningAs this volcanic material rises, it cools and descends, and competing flows strip electrons from atoms, building up static electricity. The bursts of electrical discharge are sometimes referred to as dirty lightning and can reach temperatures exceeding 16,500 degrees Celsius (29,700 degrees Fahrenheit). AccuWeatherVolcanic ash is composed of fragments of volcanic rock, minerals, and glassThese abrasive particles are hazardous to aircraft. They can melt within engines and re-solidify on turbine blades, preventing forward propulsion. If inhaled, chemicals within ash can be toxic, and the particles can embed themselves into the lungs' ducts, causing suffocation. National GeographicThe composition of magma affects the explosivity of volcanic eruptionsSilicate-rich magma contains extensive molecular chains that trap dissolved gases like water and carbon dioxide. These gases build pressure until they violently escape, creating explosive eruptions. Low-silica magmas produce gentler eruptions categorized as effusive. The Geological SocietyVolcanoes can be active, dormant, or extinct based on the recency of eruptionsActive volcanoes may be in the process of erupting or expected to erupt in the future, having done so within the past 11,650 years. Dormant volcanoes have no short-term eruption history, but are expected to erupt in the future, while extinct volcanoes lack the history and expectation. USGSThe Ring of Fire is the most geologically active zone on EarthSpanning 40,000 kilometers as it circles the Pacific Ocean, the region experienced about 90% of the world’s earthquakes and contains over 70% of its active volcanoes. The horseshoe-shaped belt features convergent, divergent, and transform plate boundaries. National GeographicThe Richter scale was only intended to quantify Southern California earthquakesThe scale, designed to rate the energy of the largest seismic waves released by an earthquake, was calibrated to the region’s crust and mantle properties. Since the 1970s, seismologists have instead used the moment magnitude scale, which considers all waves of released energy. Live ScienceView the 10 largest earthquakes ever recorded as of 2024In 1960, a magnitude 9.5 earthquake in Chile became the largest in recorded history, leaving about 2 million people homeless. Two of the largest occurred in back-to-back years in Alaska, with 9.2 and 8.7 quakes each generating tsunamis. USGSSimulate geological activity at plate boundariesYou are given a planetary model with optional rock formation and your choice of the number of tectonic plates and their densities. Draw continents, assign forces and plate boundary types, and run the simulation across map types to observe earthquakes, volcanoes, and other geological activity. Concord ConsortiumThe cycling of carbon via tectonic activity may have facilitated life on EarthPlates sinking into Earth’s mantle pull carbon from the surface, helping stabilize the atmosphere and climate by removing greenhouse gases from volcanic eruptions. At the same time, magma is a significant contributor of heavy metals and other crucial minerals for life to the surface. Live ScienceThe San Andreas Fault is an example of tectonic plates sliding past each otherThe transform boundary divides the opposing movements of the Pacific and North American tectonic plates, which create shear zones that distort and fracture rock. These movements produce shallow earthquakes as rocks are gradually displaced hundreds of miles. National Park ServiceView examples of rift valleys, the product of surface divergent boundariesAt these boundaries, tectonic plates move apart, stretching and thinning Earth’s crust as long valleys are formed from smaller, interconnected valleys and troughs. Ongoing rifting and erosion can further sink the valley, becoming a rift lake if volcanic activity becomes inactive. Geology InExplore case studies of each type of convergent plate boundaryAt these boundaries, a collision of two oceanic plates produces a curved chain of volcanic islands, like those seen in the Caribbean. A continental-continental plate collision results in plates buckling upward, forming large mountain ranges. The Geological SocietyView maps of seafloor topography, earthquakes, and volcanic activityEarthquakes and volcanoes are most common at plate boundaries, where moving plates interact. Mapping the locations of these events creates outlines for the different tectonic plates on Earth, whose movements can be tracked via GPS satellites. National Park ServiceSlab pull and ridge push contribute to convection-driven oceanic crust movementThrough ridge push, after magma is projected up from the mantle, it cools and sinks, allowing gravity to help push older oceanic crust away. As this crust sinks into the mantle at deep-sea trenches, it pulls on the trailing crust behind it, accelerating ocean crust movement. Introduction to OceanographySymmetric patterns of magnetic stripes seen on either side of mid-ocean ridgesThe symmetry provides evidence of seafloor spreading, where new oceanic crust is created at mid-ocean ridges, which pushes older ocean crust away on either side. Matching the pattern to magnetized material in rocks on Earth’s surface provided a timeline of ocean floor recycling. Smithsonian's National Museum of Natural HistoryThe theory of plate tectonics first emerged from the theory of continental driftGerman meteorologist Alfred Wegener proposed that the continents were all one giant landmass in the past, which he named Pangaea. Despite geological and climate evidence suggesting continental movement, his theory was dismissed until the 1960s. Smithsonian MagazineContinental drift is supported by matching evidence across disconnected continentsMesosaurus fossils are found in South America and Africa, but these freshwater creatures could not have travelled across the ocean between continents. Rock layers in the Appalachian Mountains match those seen in Europe, indicating that the mountain belts were once connected. CUNYA diamond's color comes from impurities, defects, and unique formation processesWhile most diamonds are transparent and sparkly, the presence of nitrogen and boron during formation can make them yellow, orange, or blue. Radiation can produce green diamonds, and structural deformities can introduce red hues. Live ScienceGeological features on Mars' surface provide evidence of massive past floodingThe presence of river valleys, enormous canyons, and other structures carved by water on Earth suggests that water flowed abundantly across Mars' surface. The layering of rocks in the walls of these structures indicates the intensity and volume of these flows. Harvard UniversityNiagara Falls flows over 400-million-year-old layered rockThe falls cut through distinct layers of ancient rock: a hard cap of Lockport Dolomite sits atop softer layers of Rochester and Queenston Shale. This structure allows the falls to maintain a steep vertical drop as erosion undercuts the caprock. New York State Parks and Historic Sites BlogNiagara’s bedrock holds 440-million-year-old coral fossilsThe Lockport Dolomite that caps Niagara Falls is composed of fossilized coral reefs from a tropical sea that once covered the region 440 million years ago. Info NiagaraNiagara Falls is slowly eroding backward toward Lake ErieAt its current erosion rate of roughly one foot per year, Niagara Falls is expected to retreat all the way to Lake Erie in about 50,000 years. New York State MuseumNiagara Falls generates its own microclimateConstant mist from the Falls produces localized weather effects, including rare ice formations that can rise over 100 feet high in winter. Niagara Falls InfoWhirlpool Rapids formed in a matter of days during the last ice ageNiagara Falls’ dramatic whirlpool rapids were created in a matter of weeks when the retreating Falls intersected a buried ice age riverbed—generating North America's largest standing waves. Niagara ParksSpeleothems are diverse mineral formations that form in air-filled cavesSpeleothems like stalactites and stalagmites form when water deposits minerals after a cave rises above the water table and fills with air. These formations preserve the mineral deposits, which may serve as climate proxies, for as long as a million years. US National Park ServiceClimate proxies reveal past climate patterns using preserved natural evidenceScientists use physical, chemical, and biological materials preserved in sediments, ice, and fossils to infer historical climate data. These proxies are studied and calibrated against modern climate conditions to interpret ancient environments accurately. USGSMinneapolis' sewage-filled Schieks CaveSchieks Cave is a geologic anomaly roughly 75 feet below Minneapolis discovered in 1904 by a sewer engineer. The cave contains a large pool of sewage which warms the nearby groundwater by more than 20 degrees Fahrenheit. The city closed the cave to the public, though concerns remain over its public health risks. Atlas ObscuraHow diamonds form in the deep earthDeep within Earth's mantle, diamonds form from carbon-bearing fluids. The formation of these beautiful gemstones, the only direct samples we have of the mantle, helps scientists uncover how carbon functions deep inside our planet. Understanding this complex process aids in the exploration for new diamond deposits. Gems & GemologyIce ages are periods of glaciation that last tens of millions of yearsDuring these periods, Earth grows cold and is covered in massive continental ice sheets. Scientists have outlined at least five major ice ages, which result from the alignment of complex factors, like the flow of ocean currents and the movement and location of tectonic plates. Utah Geological SurveyA nearby super volcano poses an even greater risk to Italy than VesuviusThe Campi Flegrei supervolcano, with over half a million residents nearby, may be the region’s true threat. This BBC short shows how scientists monitor Campania’s volatile geology—and why people remain drawn to the landscape despite the danger. BBC NewsWatch city kids encounter the national parksPart of Ken Burns’ "The National Parks: America’s Best Idea" film series, this video follows students from Las Vegas and Miami as they visit national parks. In Death Valley, the students get hands-on lessons in geology, while in Biscayne, they canoe through secluded groves and past coral reefs. PBSWhat exactly does a geologist do?While some may think of geologists simply as rock enthusiasts, their complex work has substantial implications for industries ranging from mining to environmental science. This article from The Geological Society dives deep into the diverse roles that geologists play—from fieldwork and mapping to laboratory analyses and computer modeling. Geologists engage in a variety of fieldwork, such as creating geological maps to understand rock types and structures, as well as logging rock cores for mining and oil exploration. Many geologists spend significant time in laboratories conducting microscope work, geochemical analyses, and geo-mechanical tests to reveal fine details about rocks, their chemical content, and their structural integrity. Geologists also perform computer-based tasks using specialist software for geographical information systems (GIS), database management, and modeling geological processes or mineral deposits. The work of a geologist encompasses a wide range of tasks that contribute to our understanding of Earth and its resources. The Geological SocietyExplore the Spirit and Opportunity Martian roversThe twin machines were tasked with studying the geology of Mars to identify evidence of past water activity, determine the composition of minerals, rocks, and soils, and perform "ground truth" experiments to calibrate and validate observations made by Mars orbiters. NASA
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