Theories vary on why we love to eat spicy food—even when it hurts.

Researchers have investigated the benefits of extreme pain rituals, exploring how and why we engage in these events when humans generally naturally avoid pain and perceive it as a negative experience.

Why so many people love roller coasters even though they’re scary

When a threat arises, it triggers our bodies to go into fight-or-flight mode and prepare for danger. However, when no obvious threat to our safety is present, this natural high can become enjoyable. Some people are more likely to enjoy these thrills based on factors like individual brain chemistry or physical health.

Learn about the neuroscience and psychology of why we crave comfort foods

The term was coined in 1966, when psychologist Joyce Brothers suggested humans turn to food associated with the feelings of comfort from their childhoods when experiencing emotional distress. Since then, studies have shown that the familiarity, reliability, and convenience of certain foods from one's upbringing can become tied to feelings of nostalgia.

Explore the biology of pain and why the experience of pain may differ widely from one person to another.

Some theorize that horror's artifice turns fear into enjoyment

The “excitation transfer theory” suggests that the unpleasant feelings a jump scare might elicit (like shortness of breath) are quickly relieved when the audience member remembers what they’re witnessing is fake.

Your favorite music can minimize physical pain, according to a 2025 study on how music can bring solace and address pain.

Why the Scoville scale for measuring a pepper's heat is outdated and inadequate for sauces

Developed in 1912 by American pharmacist Wilbur Scoville, the scale is a subjective test in which testers determine the dilution at which capsaicinoids—the molecules that give peppers their heat—are no longer detectable. Modern chemical analyses can accurately quantify the amount of these molecules in peppers, which are diluted to varying degrees in sauces, thus affecting their net spiciness.

Taste buds have evolved to fill a wide variety of functions

Taste buds do more than let you experience your favorite food. These peripheral organs can sense the chemical makeup, potential toxicity, and fleeting experience of flavor, giving the body a chance to respond to undesirable chemicals or tell the brain that you should reach for another scoop.

The research that led to sour

Scientists are trying to figure out if there are unique receptors that respond to the molecules that make up flavors we associate with calcium, blood, batteries, and other items that often escape dinner menus. Taste researcher Dr. Danielle Reed says the minimum evidence for a taste category typically involves identifying dedicated receptors and then removing them to show the taste vanishes.

Love and heartbreak trigger powerful, neurochemical-driven changes in the body

The feeling of falling in love floods the brain with dopamine, oxytocin and serotonin, which collectively dull pain and boost immunity. However, the loss of these chemicals during a break-up produces withdrawal-like symptoms and heart issues, such as high blood pressure.

50 years of research has focused on unraveling the relationship between music and frisson

One insight reveals that musical passages with surprising volume changes or unexpected harmonies and beauty are more likely to trigger frisson, perhaps because they upend listeners' expectations.

Learn about the point of the physical and emotional experience of pain, which has three broad categories that help determine treatment approaches.

Neural replays in mice help explain food aversions

Princeton University scientists published research in 2025 analyzing how mice learn to associate certain foods or flavors with feeling ill—even when there’s a time gap between eating something and feeling sick. The work, performed with grape Kool-Aid and injections of a substance that made mice sick, traced the literal “gut reaction” of how gut distress signals are linked to neural replays of what the mouse ate.

Itching is caused by stimulated nerve cells in the skin

Scratching produces low-level pain signals to the brain, distracting from the itch. Scratching also releases serotonin, a neurotransmitter that creates a happy sensation, which resets the itch signal. This can cause a cyclical itch-scratch cycle.

Explaining why salt should be used to season food early in the cooking process

Experiments involving the same dishes, with salt added at the start of cooking versus at the end, have been shown to yield drastically different taste outcomes because salt takes time to diffuse into foods, particularly vegetables, whose cells are surrounded by cellular membranes and walls. Salting at the end will produce a concentrated surface coating, rather than even seasoning.

Overuse of opioids can lead to hypersensitivity to pain.

Humans are wired to pick up on each other's emotion, making laughter contagious

The reaction plays a key role in establishing interpersonal connections and relieving stress by releasing endorphins—feel-good hormones. A 2021 study identified at least 65 animal species that produce playful sounds, such as laughter.

We may be using Q-tips in our ears—even when we shouldn't—because they can stimulate pleasure nerves

People continue to use Q-tips inside their ears even though we know it's risky. Some clinicians suggest that beyond the desire to get water out, this may be because the nerve bundle called the vagus nerve, which spans from the brain to the large intestine, can be stimulated that way, causing a pleasurable sensation in other body parts including the heart, belly, or genitals.

The reason some people love exercise may be because of their microbiome

Certain gut microbes in mice trigger dopamine release and drive motivation to exercise more. Scientists are investigating whether humans carry similar microbial patterns that influence our natural inclination towards movement, exploring how unseen microbial ecosystems may shape mammalian fitness behavior and reinforce innate reward pathways. (Some users may experience a paywall.)

When common sounds become disturbing

Misophonia causes certain sounds to feel violating, triggering a "very visceral kind of experience" filled with extremely unpleasant emotions, including annoyance, anger, and disgust. A 2017 study found that people with misophonia have elevated activity in the brain's anterior insula—a region associated with interoception, emotional processing, and behavioral responses—when exposed to trigger sounds. Ongoing research suggests trigger sound context affects the severity and manifestation of the condition.

Fevers are an immune response to create hurdles for pathogens

Substances called pyrogens prompt the brain to raise the body temperature to levels where bacteria and viruses struggle to survive. The higher temps also support immune cells fighting off the invaders.

Addiction develops when the pleasure circuits in the brain get overwhelmed

Normal pleasure circuits become overwhelmed by addictive substances, triggering dopamine floods many times stronger than those induced by everyday reward experiences. The understanding of addiction as a brain disease has led to treatments pairing medication and counseling.

It seems like we shouldn’t have to say this: Cheese is not like crack

While news reports may claim cheese is addictive, the facts behind the research show cheese and crack have little in common. It appears that highly processed foods with high levels of sugars and fat, rather than cheese specifically, are most closely associated with addictive-like behaviors. In fact, cheese ranked lower than foods like pizza, chocolate, and fries in terms of its addictiveness.

The science of food allergies

Why do certain substances trigger an immune response while others don't? Listen to researchers explain the science in this five-minute video. Food allergies affect around 8% of children and 2% of adults in the US, and—unlike sensitivity or intolerance—they involve the immune system mistaking certain harmless proteins in foods as dangerous invaders, triggering a rapid and sometimes severe defense response.

Scent is a stronger memory trigger than sight

Smell is imbued with more emotion than visual memories, and research indicates that smell triggers a significantly greater effect on amygdala activation. Scientists believe these powerful responses occur partly because smell signals bypass the thalamus and go directly to the amygdala and hippocampus, brain areas involved in emotion and memory.

Why TikTok loves fast-casual restaurant Chili's

The company noticed TikTokers posting enthusiastically about its food and began partnering with creators on the platform. The videos include mukbangs, a South Korean trend in which users eat a massive amount of food, and #cheesepulls, where Chili's mozzarella sticks are stretched to their limits.

The subjectivity of pain means that one person's kidney stones may be another's childbirth, but most sources of pain do have objective, underlying causes.

What exactly is dopamine?

Dopamine is a neurotransmitter—a chemical released by neurons that enables neural communication—that makes people want things with an "almost animalistic desire," compelling them to snack or check phone notifications. Often misrepresented as a "pleasure" chemical, dopamine is involved in motivation, learning, attention, habit formation, and more. Trends like dopamine fasting overinflate its role in mental health and often use it as part of "straw man" biohacking claims.

Play food science trivia along with a former state trivia champion

From limitations in panda taste receptors and a surprising food that has been forged into diamonds to the origins of chili pepper heat and the Maillard reaction, test your knowledge during a game of Super Food Science Excellence Trivia Blowout.

How grudges mostly hurt ourselves

Grudges feel like revenge against those who have done us some wrong and are very common. In this "Hidden Brain" podcast, psychologists explain how grudges end up only hurting us rather than those we hold them against. By using historical examples, the researchers show the counterintuitive danger of grudges and how people can learn how to avoid them.

Finding delight through your five senses

Digging into your immediate senses is shown to benefit your overall psychological well-being, from the happy memories evoked by familiar scents or through the transformative power of birdsong. This episode from the Science of Happiness podcast highlights insights from Gretchen Rubin, an author who has written books on the importance of engaging your senses for a happy life.

Intriguing facts about tomatoes

This episode of the Lunchbox Envy podcast dives deep into the world of tomatoes. Why do they taste nicer in certain settings? Do they "scream"? What are their health benefits? All of these questions and more are answered about the luscious red fruit. Listen and reflect on the historical and cultural significance of the tomato.

Stress-induced adrenaline can trigger a 'hysterical strength' response

The stress response is a powerful ancient mechanism designed to maximize human survival—it can even result in superhuman strength. The adrenal glands are located just above the kidneys, and stress-induced adrenaline release causes more blood (and therefore more oxygen) to flow to your muscles, increasing performance.

How we frame stress—as good or bad—seems to alter how it affects us

This podcast discusses research that indicates stress perception may drastically affect how we respond to it. In research exploring if our stress is presented as diminishing our health versus if we're told it enhances our performance, it will lead to differences in how successful participants are at performing tasks—with the enhancers doing better.

Critics argue social media made 'foodie' culture increasingly superficial

For 40 years, being a "foodie" meant possessing knowledge and expertise about ingredients, restaurants, and flavors. Now, the author argues, being a foodie has more to do with documenting aesthetically pleasing meals than critical consumption. She argues for increased attention toward the complex systems that bring food to our tables.

Phantom limbs aren't just limited to limbs—there are phantom breasts, teeth, and more, and these sensations are often painful.

What makes food crispy, and how science can be used to maximize this property

The fracturing texture experienced when biting into vegetable tempura, fried chicken, pastry crusts, and other foods comes from having a dehydrated, porous surface. When frying food in hot oil, trapped water vaporizes and escapes, creating tunnels and pores in the food as it dehydrates. Breading, particularly with the large, irregular shapes of panko, and leaveners can help create more air spaces.

Discover the chemistry behind smoking foods, including the types of smoking and the source of smoking flavors and colors.

Eight ways literature can make us happier

Novels are often characterized as a form of cultural escape, but psychologists argue there are health benefits to the many elements comprising fiction. The Greek philosopher Aristotle explored this in his "Poetics," asking if literature was something meant to make us happier. This article highlights eight different innovations common to literature that provide psychological benefits, including the plot twist and more.

How five of the world's most expensive salt and spices are made

Part of the charm of certain spices and salts is their exotic origin, hailing from difficult-to-access locales or hewn via special processes. That also explains why they can be so expensive. Dive into the businesses of producing and marketing five of the world's most expensive food additives with this engaging video.

Ghost stories can help us process death

Scholar Coya Paz’s research into ghost stories indicated that people often use them to grieve and remember tragic histories. Paz notes that specters in stories almost always demand to be acknowledged. She also shares the three most common types of ghosts we hear about are either vengeful, unwelcoming, or comforting.

Parents and romantic partners naturally touch at speeds optimizing nerve activation

A small observational research study shows that when parents are asked to caress their infants and volunteers are asked to caress their partners, both groups spontaneously stroke their loved ones at velocities that, on average, fell within the optimal range to stimulate the C-tactile afferent nerve receptors. This wasn't the case when volunteers were asked to do the same with an artificial arm, which they stroked much faster.

Why kids are picky eaters

Parents who are stressed about their child repeatedly refusing vegetables: It may not be your fault. Rather than being a result of nurture, it appears that nature decides whether a kid is more adventurous with their appetite. Researchers tracked more than 2,400 sets of twins and found how genetics may actually be a major contributor to children's finicky eating habits.

The role of fire in the evolution of humanity's big brains

Roughly 1.5 million years ago, the brain size of our hominin ancestors exploded. To understand why, Richard Wrangham posited the cooking hypothesis, arguing the adoption of fire as a means to cook food had a lasting impact on our ability to digest...

Americans spend an average of nearly $500 per year on tipping at restaurants and bars

The habit runs contrary to economic rationality: Why pay more for a good or service you have already received when it isn’t mandatory? Researchers found that people tip, in part, to avoid the psychological pain of not fitting in.

Individuals with synesthesia experience involuntarily overlapping sensations

Tasting words or seeing colors in music results from the brain retaining extrasensory connections from infancy. While most lose these neural pathways during development, about 4% of people are synesthetes, maintaining them without realizing it's unusual.

Invasivorism is a form of ethical eating focused on eating invasive species

The culinary approach helps combat the growth of invasive species populations by increasing demand for dishes made with them, but some suggest that creating a market for these species may help prolong their presence by moderating control. Some diners have expressed reluctance toward consuming more exotic species, such as nutria—raccoon-sized rodents.

The case that willfully being 'cringe' can be antisocial

While noting the prevalence of "cringe" in recent media discourse, the author argues that willfully engaging in cringe behaviors—an overzealous earnestness or awkward rupture of social norms, in many cases—is selfish and forces others to experience discomfort. The essay offers an interesting meditation on how artists often explore cringe as a concept to critique social norms, while others who encourage people to "embrace cringe" are promoting individual freedom over relational harmony.

Emotional crying is an important and cathartic process

Though babies don't initially produce tears when they cry, this podcast discusses how humans are hardwired to cry throughout life. Most crying research relies on self-reporting of crying and emotions. This podcast notes that there aren't neuroimaging studies of crying—they're quite expensive to complete. As a result, the brain precursors and processes during a bout of crying remain understudied.

There’s a lot we still don’t know about goose bumps in humans

Though goose bumps can be associated with changes in skin temperature, the biggest gaps in our understanding are around measuring goose bumps from nonthreatening exposures. These bumps can often occur without our detection, and we have trouble correctly identifying them. The relationship between emotionally induced chills and goose bumps can also be tenuous.