Algorithms, Deep-Sea Mining, and Wind Power

Plus, train versus nuclear waste canister

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Good morning. It's Tuesday, June 9, and welcome to this week's Science & Technology newsletter. First time reading? Sign up here or click here to share with friends.

We have some big news! Next week, we will debut a brand-new layout for the 1440 Science and Technology newsletter, with a greater focus on major news stories. These will be accompanied by resources that provide additional context to help our readers understand these news pieces and why they matter.

However, we will continue to deliver deep dives on various topics, spotlight noteworthy research, and share our favorite resources, curated from across the web. We hope this change ensures our readers remain the most informed and become even more knowledgeable about the latest developments in science and technology.

For now, this week's newsletter breaks down algorithms, explains the benefits and drawbacks of deep-sea mining, and explores how wind power works after we received some questions from readers following last week's electric grids write-up.

We appreciate your feedback! Feel free to hit reply and send suggestions for future newsletter topics, interesting stories about what we covered, something we may have missed, or any questions you have that we didn't answer.

—Marco Daniel Machado, 1440 Science & Technology Section Editor

The Plans Behind Outcomes

What are algorithms?

An algorithm is a series of steps for completing a task. Broadly, this includes everything from the instructions in a recipe and the procedures used to solve mathematical problems to the software underlying search engines and the ways AI systems identify patterns in data (view types). Colloquially, algorithms are associated with recommendation systems that provide users with personalized content based on their preferences, as seen in social media feeds.

Although algorithms have existed as long as routines, processes, and mathematics have, the term originated from Algoritmi, the Latin translation of al-Khwārizmī, a 9th-century mathematician whose book "Al-Jabr" gave algebra its name. In 1843, English mathematician Ada Lovelace—considered the first computer programmer—designed the first computer algorithm, which showed how a machine could perform a complex mathematical calculation. By 1936, Alan Turing proved that a machine could be designed to execute any conceivable algorithm, laying the foundation for modern computing (watch explainer).

Since then, algorithms have been developed to process data faster than can be done by hand, with complex systems able to automatically self-improve and become more efficient (watch how). Certain algorithms, such as those in hiring and lending, may reinforce existing biases because they rely on human programming or, in the case of machine learning, historical patterns in data (algorithmic bias, explained).

Learn even more by exploring all our findings on Algorithms here.

Here's a sample of what we found ...

> You've been secretly training algorithms when you solve CAPTCHA puzzles. (Read)

> YouTube's recommendation algorithm relies on over 80 billion daily pieces of information. (Read)

> What do dynamic pricing algorithms consider when changing prices in real time? (Watch)

> Navigation apps rely on an algorithm developed at a Dutch café in 1956. (Watch)

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Collecting Underwater Treasures

Deep-sea mining, explained

Deep-sea mining is the extraction of valuable minerals from the ocean floor. The process targets cobalt, nickel, copper, manganese, and other metals essential for electronics and clean-energy technologies. As of 2026, the International Seabed Authority has granted 32 contracts for institutions to research, survey, and test equipment in specific areas, but there are no active commercial operations amid concerns over ecosystem disruption and biodiversity loss.

While some contracts explore harvesting deposits near underwater volcanoes or crusts that coat underwater mountains and ridges, the majority focus on polymetallic nodules (learn more). These metal-rich, potato-shaped rocks are scattered throughout abyssal plains—vast flatlands located between 3,000 and 6,000 meters (about 10,000 to 20,000 feet) below sea level. Across these plains, quantities of some minerals are estimated to surpass those found in land-based reserves.

Nodules would be suctioned up by machines roaming such plains and piped up to surface ships for processing (watch process). Sediments, organic matter, and other waste would then be pumped back into the ocean. This collection and discharge would destroy seafloor habitats, injure organisms caught by rovers, and produce noise pollution and sediment plumes. These clouds could also suffocate filter-feeding animals and disrupt bioluminescent organisms dependent on light for survival.

Learn even more by exploring all our findings on Deep-Sea Mining here.

Here's a sample of what we found ...

> A map of the distribution of mineral resources on the seafloor. (View)

> Most deep-sea mining contracts are focused on the Clarion-Clipperton Zone, an abyssal plain worth trillions of dollars. (Read)

> The engineering challenges of extracting metals from the seafloor. (Watch)

> An analysis of whether deep-sea mining is necessary. (Read)

Harvesting the Breeze

Wind power, 101

Wind power is a renewable energy source that transforms the energy of the wind's motion into electricity. Before the first electricity-generating windmill in 1883, wind had been harnessed for sailboat propulsion, by windmills to grind grain, pump water, and extract salt from seawater, and at sawmills to cut wood.

Wind turbines generate electricity through electromagnetic induction. When air passes across turbine blades, which resemble airplane wings, a force of lift is produced, rotating the blades. The blades rotate a gearbox connected to magnets, which create electricity in a generator when spun (explore interactive).

Wind turbines are limited to windy environments, often far from energy-hungry cities, and have higher up-front costs than fossil fuels. While they produce noise equivalent to a refrigerator and are known to kill birds—though at lower rates than cats and window collisions—wind turbines are expected to continue increasing in size, thus lowering their rotation speed and negative impacts (see visualization).

As of March 2026, there are 75,727 wind turbines in the US, with the average turbine installed in 2020 producing enough electricity in 46 minutes to power a US home for a month. Globally, 8.5% of electricity generation came from land-based, offshore, and distributed wind farms in 2025.

Learn even more by exploring all our findings on Wind Power here.

Here's a sample of what we found ...

> Kites moving like yo-yos can be used to generate electricity from wind. (Watch)

> Why are most wind turbines made with three blades? (Watch)

> See technicians use rappelling gear to repair wind turbines from over 35 stories high. (Watch)

> How are wind turbines built at sea? (Watch)

Science Spotlight

Like all great scientists, we love spending time researching the latest scientific breakthroughs, tech releases, engaging explainers, and the connections between science and society that are making headlines. Here's what we found this week.

> The sun's 'heartbeat' suggests changes to its subsurface structure and behavior

Royal Astronomical Society | Sam Tonkin and Tony Moran. While solar activity rises and falls in 11‑year cycles, scientists tracking sound waves inside the star identified that magnetic activity is being squeezed into an increasingly shallow layer just below the visible surface. The gradual change may indicate the sun is entering a different mode of behavior unfolding over several decades. (Read | Listen to solar sounds.)

> Classifying trillions of ocean microbes to model their impact on the carbon cycle

USC Dornsife College | Staff. Researchers used genetic data and a machine learning approach to group microbes into eight broad clusters, simplifying the diverse metabolic strategies seen throughout the ocean. These groupings may help climate models more accurately incorporate microbial activity, including the capture of carbon, to better predict how the ocean will respond to climate change. (Read)

> The Amazon rainforest exhibits chemical adaptations to drought-related stress

Max Planck Institute | Joseph Byron. A study conducted during and after the 2023-24 El Niño cycle found that emissions of sesquiterpenes—stress signals and protective substances—increased by 122% in response to the most intense drought ever recorded in the region. The change reflects trees' ability to undergo metabolic changes as they attempt to alleviate damage from environmental stressors. (Read)

> A first-of-its-kind AI tool for translating life-saving weather warnings

University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign | Lois Yoksoulian. Through a partnership between the National Weather Service and the AI translation platform LILT, the program delivers life-saving forecasts and alerts in various languages, including Spanish, Chinese, Vietnamese, Samoan, and French. It achieves an accuracy above 95% and reduces translation time from up to an hour to a few minutes. (Read)

> LEGO Foundation launches a new global research fellowship

Social Science Research Council | Staff. Researchers whose work focuses on children in crisis and conflict settings, neurodivergent children—particularly those with autism or ADHD—or children's learning and development in an AI-enabled world are encouraged to apply for the new, three-year fellowship through July 31. (Read)

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Best of the Week

We curate hundreds of resources into 1440 Topics each week. Here are some of our favorites from the world of science and technology.

Read:

> Why was a train moving 100 miles per hour intentionally crashed into a nuclear waste canister in 1984?

> A look at open-weight AI models, which can provide users with harmful information.
> Why hurricanes never cross the equator.
> How many generations of humans have there been?

Listen:

> The history of chemistry, from alchemists to probing atoms before World War I.

Watch:

> How do volcanoes die?

> Why all rainbows are actually raincircles.

> Ionizing radiation can cause software errors in computer chips, complicating the viability of space-based data centers.

> Across five scientific disciplines, what are the most cited research papers?

Explore:

> Visualize the path of every solar eclipse from 1900 to 2099 and what each looks like from different locations on Earth.

Thank you to our readers for inspiring us with their questions! Curious about something in science and technology? Tell us here.

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Algorithms, Deep-Sea Mining, and Wind Power