Good morning. It's Tuesday, Dec. 30, and welcome to this week's Science & Technology newsletter. First time reading? Sign up here or click here to share with friends. |
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This week we're covering time. With the new year causing many of us to reflect on the past and ponder the future, we were inspired to share the current understanding of this all-too-familiar but hard-to-define concept. We're also celebrating the occasion with a look at the science of fireworks before exploring the space tourism industry.
Thank you for reading the Science & Technology newsletter in 2025! Since launching at the end of May, almost 115,000 of you have joined us on our journey to better understand the universe, and we're excited to continue this adventure in 2026, when we'll cover topics such as Chaos Theory, Photosynthesis, the Dark Web, Supernovae, and much, much more.
As always, please let us know your thoughts on our write-ups, send in any questions, and share suggestions for what you'd like us to cover next. Thank you—and Happy New Year!
—Marco Machado, 1440 Science & Technology Section Editor |
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Time, explained
Time is a dimension where events can be mapped based on when they occur. Just as distance measures how far two locations are from one another on a map, duration measures how far two events are from one another in the time dimension. Without this dimension, we would not be able to contrast events and observe change in the universe.
Historically, time intervals have been quantified by counting the repeating motion between events, such as the apparent motion of the sun in the sky. Replacements involving motion that repeats more frequently, such as swinging pendulums, vibrating crystals, and oscillating atoms, enabled more precise plotting of events along the time dimension.
While three-dimensional motion through space is possible in any direction, our perception is that time only flows from the past to the future. The second law of thermodynamics states that the entropy, or disorder, of the universe cannot decrease, preventing certain events from occurring after others and imposing this "arrow of time" (learn more).
According to relativity, time and space are one entity—spacetime—and just as all of space exists, so does all of time, making perceptions of past, present, and future illusory (watch explainer). The theory also explains why the passage of time slows the more one moves through space and the stronger the gravity one experiences (time dilation, explained).
In contrast, time is considered a background parameter in quantum physics, independent of one's motion or location, contributing to the incompatibility of quantum mechanics with general relativity (watch explainer).
Also, check out ...
> The Planck time is the smallest unit of time that could ever be measured. (Read)
> Quantum physics models allow effects to occur before causes. (Read)
> What science tells us about time travel and changing the past. (Watch)
> How geometry can be used to describe what happens at the edge of time. (Watch)
Explore everything else we've found on time. |
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What are fireworks?
Fireworks are devices filled with explosive chemicals used for celebratory purposes. They are classified as display—used by licensed professionals—or consumer—used by the general public—but both get their propulsion and explosion from gunpowder.
Fireworks originated over 2,000 years ago in Liuyang, China—still the source of most of the world’s supply—when people discovered that burning bamboo created explosive sounds. After Chinese alchemists accidentally invented gunpowder while searching for the elixir of immortality, it was initially stored in bamboo and later in paper tubes, leading to the development of modern fireworks.
Modern aerial shell fireworks consist of a lift charge, fuse, burst charge, and stars, which are composed of specific chemical compounds that produce distinct colors and effects. The layout of stars in particular shapes produces the shapes seen in displays, which are launched using digital firing systems (watch their construction).
However, fireworks pose serious health and safety risks—including injury and environmental harm—prompting an increased interest in alternatives, such as drone and laser shows.
Also, check out ...
> Gunpowder is one of the "Four Great Inventions" of ancient China. (Read)
> "Silent" fireworks are a misnomer. (Read)
> A human pyrotechnics suit launches a world record 642 fireworks. (Watch)
> Marie-Antoinette's connection to the deadliest fireworks accident in history. (Read)
Explore everything else we've found on fireworks. |
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Space tourism, 101
The billion-dollar space tourism industry offers trips into microgravity conditions for recreation rather than scientific research (explore its history). At a cost of hundreds of thousands to tens of millions of dollars, space tourists can purchase a seat from several space travel agencies to experience the overview effect—the documented sense of awe associated with viewing the entire world at once.
Trips fall under two categories: short-term suborbital and longer orbital voyages (read explainer). Blue Origin's New Shepard rocket and Virgin Galactic's VSS Unity spaceship have conducted suborbital missions, providing tourists with a few minutes of weightlessness, while SpaceX utilizes its Falcon 9 rockets and Crew Dragon capsules to achieve a stable orbit around Earth every 90 minutes (learn more).
The future retirement of the International Space Station has shifted competition from merely owning the journey into space to also owning the destination. NASA's Commercial Low Earth Orbit Development Program is currently supporting efforts by Axiom Space, Blue Origin, and Starlab Space to launch orbital space stations that can house both astronauts and tourists (explore space settlements gallery).
Also, check out ...
> A $20M ticket kicked off the space tourism industry in 2001. (Watch)
> Pan Am issued cards for those who were waitlisted for a flight to the moon. (View)
> Explore the first space hotel, planned for 2027. (Read)
> Why so many billionaires are interested in going to space. (Watch)
Explore everything else we've found on space tourism. |
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Science and Technology in 2025 |
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Rather than spotlighting the past week's scientific breakthroughs and technological advancements, we wanted to compile a few resources that highlight the most significant news pieces and breakthroughs in science and technology from the year.
> The 10 most significant science stories from 2025
Smithsonian Magazine | Staff. Despite the termination or freezing of nearly 4,000 grants by the National Science Foundation and the National Institutes of Health, science and technology remained in the headlines, with stories such as the de-extinction of the dire wolf and finding potential signs of life on an exoplanet. (Read)
> Explore 300 of the best inventions of the year
Time | Staff. Sorted across categories such as accessibility, beauty, productivity, sustainability, and travel, these products were designed to help make people's lives a little easier and expand the horizons of human ingenuity. Items include non-browning bananas, a temperature-regulating bra, and a blood test for brain injury. (Read)
> The year's most significant scientific breakthroughs
Science.org | Staff. From the influence of bird feeders on hummingbird beak evolution to the use of "artificial spacetimes" to guide tiny robots through their environments, the staff at the American Association for the Advancement of Science shares their picks for the most significant developments of 2025. (Listen)
> A review of 2025's AI news
The Verge | Staff. We saw more headlines involving artificial intelligence than ever before, from the launch of OpenAI's new ChatGPT model and text-to-video tool, Sora 2, to the releases of agentic web browsers and AI-generated music. Concerns about the growth of AI-based relationships and psychosis are also discussed. (Listen)
> Time: Visualize the history of all of time. (Watch) |
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"The only reason for time is so that everything doesn't happen at once." |
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