Biosphere 2, Apple, and History's Most Important Algorithm

What is Biosphere 2?

Biosphere 2 is a 3.14-acre research facility in Arizona that houses miniaturized versions of various ecosystems, including a tropical rainforest, an ocean, and a savanna grassland (explore virtual tours). The world’s largest closed ecological system was initially designed to determine if life could survive in an artificial habitat modeled after Earth—Biosphere 1—as a predecessor to space colonization.

To test this, two crews of “Biospherians” were sealed inside the structure, tasked with maintaining the ecosystems while growing their own food and processing their own waste without outside help. Declining oxygen levels, food production challenges, and interpersonal conflicts complicated the first mission, which ran from 1991 to 1993. The second mission (1994) prematurely ended after two members of the first crew broke containment from the outside, alleging that new facility management would endanger the new crew.

Since then, rather than being confined within it, scientists have utilized B2’s facilities to model climate change, uncover mechanisms behind biodiversity loss, and develop techniques for enhancing biome sustainability.

Also, check out ... 

> During the first B2 mission, crew members lost 16% of their body weight. (More)

> A prototype greenhouse for B2 is now part of a test habitat for Mars. (More)

> The B2 experiment exploring how to terraform planets. (More)

> How China prepared for a lunar base with its own closed ecosystem. (More)

Explore everything else we've found on Biosphere 2. 

Apple, 101

Apple is a tech giant renowned for products like the iPhone, iPad, and Mac—devices that have transformed how people communicate, consume media, and interact with technology.

The company was cofounded in 1976 by Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, and Ronald Wayne, focusing on personal computing that could be used for creativity and enjoyment by ordinary consumers. With the launch of the Macintosh in 1984, Apple set the standard for modern PCs with its graphical user interface. It then shifted the music industry into a song-download framework with the launch of the iPod in 2001. Apple revolutionized the smartphone industry in 2007 with the iPhone, introducing an all-screen touch interface and smartphone apps (explore its history).

Since CEO Tim Cook took the helm in 2011, Apple has continued to launch new products, including the Apple Watch, AirPods headphones, and Vision Pro AR headset. In 2019, Apple became a player in Hollywood, funding original shows and movies via Apple TV.

Also, check out ... 

> One of Apple’s first computers sold for $375K at an auction. (More)

> The first Apple logo was a portrait of Isaac Newton. (More)

> Why the Beatles sued Apple in 1978. (More)

> The story behind Apple's award-winning 1984 Super Bowl ad. (More)

Explore everything else we've found on Apple. 

Self-driving cars, explained

Self-driving cars are autonomous automobiles that can operate without human intervention. This includes safely navigating from one destination to another while adhering to traffic rules and responding to changing road conditions without a human taking over.

These machines rely on a suite of sensors—including radar, lidar (which uses lasers), and photographic technologies—to perceive the world around the vehicle. Data collected by these sensors is used to create a “map” of the environment to identify everything from street signs and traffic signals to other vehicles and pedestrians (learn more). That map is constantly updated, allowing an artificial intelligence program to make decisions about when to accelerate, brake, or turn in order to travel safely.

As of the fourth quarter of 2025, no fully autonomous self-driving cars are available on the market for consumers. However, some companies, such as Waymo and Mercedes-Benz, are testing self-driving vehicles on public roads.

 
Also, check out ... 

> Self-driving cars race in the Abu Dhabi Autonomous Racing League. (More)

> There are six levels of self-driving technology. (More)

> Explore 14 iconic self-driving cars from television and film. (More)

> What car manufacturers can learn from the aviation industry about building trust in automation. (More)

Explore everything else we've found on self-driving cars. 

Science Spotlight

Like all great scientists, we love spending time researching the latest scientific breakthroughs, tech releases, engaging explainers, and the connections between science and society that are making headlines. Here's what we found this week.

> Developing a framework to accelerate coal plant retirement
The Current | Debra Herrick. A team led by UC Santa Barbara researchers classified the entire US coal fleet into eight groups based on 68 technical, economic, environmental, and socio-political factors, identifying patterns that explained why certain plants are retiring, which are most susceptible to doing so, and what data-driven strategies policymakers can take as part of decarbonization efforts. (Read)

> Metallic gel created for the first time

Texas A&M Stories | Denise Brehm. The material was created by heating and mixing two metal powders—one that stays solid and forms a metallic scaffold, and another that melts into a liquid and becomes trapped in the structure—allowing it to withstand extreme heat. The highly reactive metals easily bond with other materials and can be used as electrodes within liquid metal batteries. (Read)

> AI can speed antibody design to thwart novel viruses

VUMC News | Bill Snyder. A protein language model was able to design functional human antibodies that recognized the unique surface proteins of specific viruses, without requiring part of the antibody sequence as a starting template. The findings suggest the model could generate antibodies against an emerging health threat more rapidly than traditional antibody discovery methods. (Read)

> Novel battery design optimizes performance for extreme climates

Penn State | Ty Tkacik. Despite lithium-ion batteries’ role as one of the most widely used forms of energy storage, they have required external heating or cooling mechanisms to keep them operational far beyond their optimal temperature of 25 degrees Celsius. The new design incorporates an internal structure and is entirely powered by the battery, allowing the system to self-regulate its temperature. (Read)

> A first look at the sun's polar magnetic field in motion

Max Planck Institute | Staff. Analysis from the first clear view of the sun’s south pole in March by the ESA's Solar Orbiter spacecraft has revealed that its magnetic field and plasma cells drift toward the poles at higher speeds than expected. Future observations will help uncover how the processes at the poles contribute to building up the sun's global magnetic field over the course of a solar cycle. (Read)

Best of the Week

We curate hundreds of resources onto 1440 Topics each week. Here are some of our favorites from the world of science and technology.

> Particle accelerators, explained.

> Which animal has the best hearing?

> Have hurricanes been getting worse?

> What it takes for a dead organism to become a fossil.

> Demystifying headlines about the risks of acrylamide in food.

> During the summer, the sun doesn't set at the poles, but what about the moon?

> Breaking down the chemistry of glow sticks.

> Who really invented the light bulb?

> Why the fast Fourier transform may be the most important algorithm in history.

> Could the entire internet ever go down?

Thank you to our readers for inspiring us with their questions! Curious about something in science and technology? Tell us here.

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