The Apollo Program: NASA's Historic Journey to the Moon

The Apollo Program is one of the most well-known projects in the history of space exploration. It was through Apollo missions that Neil Armstrong was able to land on the moon and say the famous line, “That’s one small step for a man. One giant leap for mankind.” There were 11 crewed missions through the Apollo program and six lunar landing missions.

Origins of the Apollo Missions

Apollo wasn’t the first program to bring people to space. Project Mercury (1958 – 1963), resulted in six crewed flights that marked America’s first successful attempts to bring humans into space. This was followed by the Gemini Program (1964 – 1965).

Gemini is often the forgotten middle program. While Mercury set a goal to bring humans to space and Apollo wanted to bring astronauts to the moon, Gemini focused on keeping people in space for a sustained period. It was a foundational step before researchers could move on to a moon landing.

The goal of getting to the moon was set well before the Apollo program began. The Cold War with the Soviet Union started in the 1950s and was in full swing by 1961. Not only were Americans doing their best to disarm the Soviets, but they were also engaged in a heated space race. The Soviet Union had already launched Sputnik, the first satellite, into space in 1957, and the Americans were working to catch up.

On May 5, 1961, Alan Shepard became the first American in space, just behind Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin a few weeks earlier. To encourage the American people to support space exploration efforts — especially against the Soviets — President John F. Kennedy challenged the nation to commit itself to putting a man on the moon and bringing him home. This statement, given during a joint session of Congress on May 25, 1961, is one of the main things that Kennedy is known for.

Prominent Figures in the Apollo Space Program Missions

Countless researchers worked tirelessly to make the Apollo Program a success, but two notable figures were James Webb and Wernher von Braun.

Webb was NASA’s administrator from 1961 to 1968. NASA credits him with doing “more for science than perhaps any other government official.” His job was to manage the 35,000 employees and 400,000 contractors involved in the Apollo program. His work is so notable that NASA named its most advanced telescope after him. The James Webb Space Telescope continues his legacy of using space exploration to uncover secrets of the universe.

Dr. Wernher von Braun joined the Nazi party in 1937 and was one of Hitler’s leading engineers in charge of the V-2 ballistic missile program. Specifically, he oversaw production at the Mittelwerk plant, which was run by 60,000 slave laborers. He was brought to the U.S. after the war through Project Paperclip and started working on American rockets.

Von Braun was an essential engineer in developing the spacecraft that would eventually take American engineers to the moon.

Timeline of the Apollo Program Missions

While most people are familiar with the Apollo 11 mission, there were several steps before NASA reached its moon landing goal. Here’s an overview of each Apollo mission:

• Apollo 1 (January 27, 1967): Apollo 1 caught fire during a pre-flight test, killing the three astronauts on board: Gus Grissom, Ed White, and Roger Chaffee.
• Apollos 2-6: There was no Apollo 2 or 3. Apollos 4, 5, and 6 were uncrewed flights.
• Apollo 7 (October 11, 1968): This was the first Apollo mission to send people to orbit.
• Apollo 8 (December 21, 1968): This was the first manned spacecraft to orbit the moon.
• Apollo 9 (March 3, 1969): This mission carried a lunar module into orbit.
• Apollo 10 (May 18, 1969): This was considered a full dress rehearsal for the moon landing.
• Apollo 11 (July 16, 1969): The Apollo 11 mission brought Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin to the moon.
• Apollo 12 (November 14, 1969): This mission recovered pieces from a research robot.
• Apollo 13 (April 11, 1970): The mission never landed on the moon, but is considered a success because they made it back safely after an on-ship explosion.
• Apollo 14 (January 31, 1971): This was considered the smoothest lunar landing to date.
• Apollo 15 (July 26, 1971): This was the first time a rover was driven on the moon.
• Apollo 16 (April 16, 1972): Astronauts collected more than 209 pounds of samples and drove 16 miles over the moon’s surface.
• Apollo 17 (December 7, 1972): This was the last Apollo mission. It included extensive moonwalks and sample collections, which supported decades of research.

Each of these missions played a critical role in space exploration research and the advancement of modern aeronautics technology.

The Apollo 11 Mission

Apollo 11 is notable because it made President Kennedy’s vision a reality: humans walked on the moon for the first time. A Saturn V rocket launched on July 16, 1969, from Cape Kennedy in Florida. President Lyndon Johnson was in attendance as Neil Armstrong, Buzz Aldrin, and Michael Collins were launched into space.

On July 20, 1969, Armstrong and Aldrin stepped onto the surface of the moon. An estimated 650 million people all across Earth watched this historic moment. Armstrong planted the American flag and said his famous line.

Challenges Faced by Astronauts

While traveling to space means living a dream that few can ever hope to achieve, the days spent in orbit are hard on the human body. NASA is continuously researching the effects of space travel on astronauts and working to help them overcome some of the most unsavory challenges. A few problems they are working to address include:

• Navigating weightlessness;
• Adapting to limited living space;
• Wearing heavy and uncomfortable space suits;
• Maintaining physical fitness;
• Keeping astronauts healthy in space;
• Reducing bodily stress during takeoff and return.

This research is particularly important as astronauts spend longer in space. Russian cosmonaut Oleg Kononenko set a record in February 2024 with 878 days in orbit. He will spend more than 1,000 days in space in total before he returns. Protecting astronauts doesn’t stop at the launch pad. It needs to continue through each day outside of Earth.

Technologies Developed for the Apollo Program

When you look at the technology used during the Apollo program compared to the apps and tools people have today, it’s impressive to think how quickly researchers were able to get to the moon.

For example, the Apollo Guidance Computer (AGC) was one of the first computers designed to be small. It was essential for navigating to the moon but only had a storage of 4KB of RAM. For reference, an iPhone 15 has 6 GB (6 x 1,000,000KB) RAM.

Another essential invention was the Display and Keyboard (DSKY) instrument panel. This was the main tool used to communicate with other computers on board.

The technological inventions from the Apollo program helped researchers make apps and tools the people on Earth use today. Space exploration inspired a generation of engineers who worked on rockets, but also those who developed computers and personal technology systems.

Legacy of the Apollo Program

The results of the Apollo program are unparalleled in the worlds of aeronautics and scientific research. The legacy of the Apollo missions affected generations of scientists.

Watching astronauts walk on the moon excited Americans about future space missions, leading to the development of additional space shuttle missions and eventually the founding of companies like SpaceX.

It also inspired both boys and girls to enter the field of rocket science. Today’s astronauts watched the Apollo missions and other shuttle launches from their homes and schools. Women like Sally Ride and Mae Jemison broke gender and racial barriers to travel into space.

Apollo will always be known as the program that brought Americans to the moon, but it’s also a program that made an entire planet excited about the galaxy we call home.