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EarthquakesEarthquakes are geological events caused by rocks beneath Earth's surface becoming overwhelmed by mechanical stress and moving suddenly.
Mechanical stress comes from the gradual movement of tectonic plates—massive pieces of crust and upper mantle that have drifted for billions of years—which can squeeze, stretch, or twist rocks. Once rocks experience stress beyond a critical point, they fracture and release energy built up while under stress.
Earthquakes originate at the focus or hypocenter, where energy is released in all directions as seismic waves. They are felt most intensely at the epicenter—the surface above the focus. Seismologists measure the size of an earthquake on the moment magnitude scale, where each whole-number increase, such as from 4.0 to 5.0, represents a 32-fold increase in released energy.
Analyzing these waves has allowed scientists to learn about Earth’s interior, identify tectonic plate boundaries, and develop warning systems for tsunamis.Explore Earthquakes
What we've found
Engineering tall structures requires managing wind, earthquakes, and other destabilizing factorsReinforced concrete, energy dampers, braced frames, flexible structures, and aerodynamic decks were among the methods implemented when building structures such as the Shanghai Tower, the Texas Super Skyscraper, and the South Rangitīkei Viaduct. Science ChannelBoomerang earthquakes reverse direction and ripple back the way they cameComputer simulations show that rapid changes in friction along a fault where an earthquake has traveled for long distances can produce a smaller quake in the opposite direction. Data consistent with the phenomena has only been recorded a handful of times from 2011 to 2023. Discover MagazineEnhanced geothermal power systems can trigger earthquakesThese systems inject fluid into rock to create cracks that allow deeper reservoirs of fluid to escape or to create networks where water can be deposited for heating. This injection can increase subterranean pressure and potentially trigger earthquakes, necessitating the use of sensors and moderated drilling technologies. Undecided with Matt FerrellExplore an interactive map of historical volcanoes, earthquakes, and tsunamisThe Natural Hazards Viewer allows users to map the locations of major natural hazards from 2150 BCE to the present. Advanced filters allow for various refinement methods, including volcano morphology, earthquake magnitude, tsunami height, deaths, and damage. NOAAEarthquake early warning systems do not predict earthquakesSystems like ShakeAlert® use a network of hundreds of ground sensors to detect earthquakes moments after they begin. Since seismic waves travel about 5 km/s, individuals may be notified of earthquakes before they feel the seismic activity has reached them. Pacific Northwest Seismic NetworkView a map of the world’s major earthquakes from 1956-2022Such maps can help identify tectonic plate boundaries. The most significant earthquakes are characteristic of converging plates, such as those in the Circum-Pacific Belt and the Alpine-Himalayan Belt, where the Himalayas continue to grow. Visual CapitalistEarthquakes of identical magnitudes are unlikely to cause equal damageThe severity of earthquakes depends on factors beyond the energy released in a region, including local architecture and geological conditions, such as water-saturated soil behaving like quicksand. Secondary effects, such as landslides, floods, and fires, may also contribute. Smithsonian MagazineThe Richter scale was only intended to quantify Southern California earthquakesThe scale, designed to rate the energy of the largest seismic waves released by an earthquake, was calibrated to the region’s crust and mantle properties. Since the 1970s, seismologists have instead used the moment magnitude scale, which considers all waves of released energy. Live ScienceView the 10 largest earthquakes ever recorded as of 2024In 1960, a magnitude 9.5 earthquake in Chile became the largest in recorded history, leaving about 2 million people homeless. Two of the largest occurred in back-to-back years in Alaska, with 9.2 and 8.7 quakes each generating tsunamis. USGSTectonic earthquakes are caused by interactions of tectonic plates at fault zonesAt these locations, plates slide past one another, deforming rock through friction as energy builds like a stretched rubber band. Volcanic eruptions, the collapse of subterranean caverns, or underground nuclear explosions can also cause earthquakes. Caltech Science ExchangeView maps of seafloor topography, earthquakes, and volcanic activityEarthquakes and volcanoes are most common at plate boundaries, where moving plates interact. Mapping the locations of these events creates outlines for the different tectonic plates on Earth, whose movements can be tracked via GPS satellites. National Park ServiceWhy Turkey's earthquakes were so deadlyThe death toll from February 2023 has reached the tens of thousands, making it one of the deadliest natural disasters of the century. The intense seismic activity combined with poor and unregulated construction in many areas to drive fatalities.... ReutersFamed American investor Jesse Livermore made millions when the stock market crashed in 1929Livermore made his first major short against rail company Union Pacific in 1906, coincidentally before an earthquake in San Francisco, which ultimately tanked share prices. During a financial panic the next year, JP Morgan reportedly asked Livermore to increase his long-term investments to restore hope and restabilize the market—which Livermore did. However, Livermore began betting against the market in 1929, sensing that stocks were too hot, and was one of the few people to benefit from the 1929 stock crash. YouTubeWatch a tsunami warning system provide real-time alerts across the PacificThis visualization of the GUARDIAN monitoring software depicts its detection and transmission of natural hazard signals from the magnitude 8.8 Kamchatka Peninsula earthquake on July 29, 2025. The first detections occurred 32 minutes before the earliest tidal impacts, demonstrating the system's potential to save lives by expanding response time windows. Plastic debris across the ocean aids the spread of invasive speciesThe durable, long-lasting material can serve as a platform for living organisms to latch onto and ride over vast distances. After the 2011 earthquake and tsunami in Japan, a large dock carrying 100 tons of living organisms native to Japan washed up on Oregon's coastline, confirming the ecological threat. VICE NewsTornadoes produce inaudible signals to humans hours before formingResearchers at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration have found that tornado-producing storms generate specific sounds below the range of human hearing, much like the infrasonic signals produced by earthquakes and avalanches. Although difficult to distinguish from wind noise, scientists hope to build systems that use these signals to improve tornado forecasting. IEEE SpectrumMany believe a cataclysmic volcanic eruption is imminent at Yellowstone, though experts say it is unlikelyMike Poland, a scientist at the Yellowstone Volcano Observatory, estimates the likelihood of the event at one in a million. He cautions, though, that the park poses other potential dangers, including steam explosions and earthquakes. UnexplainableSince 2017, Virgo has helped LIGO localize astronomical phenomenaThe detector near Pisa, Italy, coordinates its experimental runs with those in Hanford, Washington, and Livingston, Louisiana. Scientists can triangulate the locations of celestial events that generate gravitational waves using signal arrival times, just as earthquake locations can be determined from measurements at three seismic stations. American Physical SocietyGo inside the Washington MonumentThis video tour of the Washington Monument explores its interior, construction delays, political battles, memorial stones, earthquake damage, and later modernization—showing how symbolism, engineering, and 19th-century politics shaped the nation's tallest monument. IT'S HISTORYVisualize the power and frequency of earthquake magnitudesAbout 150 medium earthquakes—magnitude 6.0—occur every year, resulting in moderate shaking and some property damage. While millions of earthquakes below category 2.0 occur yearly, fewer than one of category 9.0 or higher occurs on average. Visual CapitalistReported earthquake magnitudes change as more data refines initial estimatesInitial magnitudes are based on limited information, while final magnitudes account for factors like fault size, rupture duration, and seismic wave behavior. Larger earthquakes have the most complex seismic wave activity and often require the most time to finalize recorded magnitudes. IRIS Earthquake ScienceTsunamis are caused by sudden seafloor shifts displacing waterEarthquakes of magnitude 7.0 with hypocenters within 100 km of the seafloor can vertically shift large sections of the seafloor significantly. This seismic activity is more commonly found in subduction zones, where an oceanic plate sinks beneath a continental one. NOAAThe Ring of Fire is the most geologically active zone on EarthSpanning 40,000 kilometers as it circles the Pacific Ocean, the region experienced about 90% of the world’s earthquakes and contains over 70% of its active volcanoes. The horseshoe-shaped belt features convergent, divergent, and transform plate boundaries. National GeographicCounterweights can dampen the impact of seismic activity on buildingsJapan’s Tokyo Skytree uses a free-moving central column inspired by ancient pagodas, while Taiwan’s Taipei 101 contains a 660-ton pendulum on its 92nd floor that swings out of sync with the building. Interesting EngineeringAn 800-ton shake table is the world's largest earthquake simulatorAfter the 1995 Kobe earthquake killed over 6,000 people, Japan created E-Defense to reproduce the force of earthquakes and test them against structures as tall as 10 stories, leading to changes in Japanese building codes to reduce collapse rates. VeritasiumThe movement of seismic waves reveals the structure of Earth’s interiorChanges in temperature, density, and composition alter the path of primary and secondary waves, impacting where they are detected along Earth’s surface. These deflections create shadow zones 104 degrees to 140 degrees away from the epicenter, where no waves are directly detected. SciencePrimerThe four types of seismic waves are categorized as body or surface wavesPrimary (P) and secondary (S) waves are compression and shear waves, respectively, and travel through Earth’s interior, though secondary waves only move through solids. These waves’ energy is converted into rolling Rayleigh or horizontal Love waves at the surface. Pacific Northwest Seismic NetworkA magnitude 25 earthquake would release enough energy to destroy the sunSince Richter and moment magnitude scales rank earthquake energies logarithmically, theoretical magnitude values can cover an enormous range with no upper or lower mathematical limit. A particle of dust drifting onto a table would have a magnitude of about -15. xkcd's What If?The earliest earthquake detection device involved eight ball-wielding dragonsInvented in China in 132 CE, the seismoscope was an urn with dragons facing different directions. If an earthquake occurred, the dragon facing the direction of the tremor released its ball. Like modern seismographs, its mechanism may have involved a suspended weight. Michigan Technological UniversityDifferences in seismic wave speeds let scientists determine an earthquake’s locationBecause primary waves are faster than secondary waves, seismic stations will detect longer gaps between these waves’ arrivals the farther an earthquake is. Calculating the distance to the earthquake from three stations allows its origin to be triangulated. Earthscope ConsortiumSimulate geological activity at plate boundariesYou are given a planetary model with optional rock formation and your choice of the number of tectonic plates and their densities. Draw continents, assign forces and plate boundary types, and run the simulation across map types to observe earthquakes, volcanoes, and other geological activity. Concord ConsortiumThe San Andreas Fault is an example of tectonic plates sliding past each otherThe transform boundary divides the opposing movements of the Pacific and North American tectonic plates, which create shear zones that distort and fracture rock. These movements produce shallow earthquakes as rocks are gradually displaced hundreds of miles. National Park ServiceDeep-sea trenches form when one tectonic plate subducts another underwaterOceanic plates sink when colliding with less dense continental plates, bending the seafloor into steep depressions that can be almost 11 kilometers deep. Many of Earth’s strongest earthquakes occur at these plate boundaries, often featuring volcanic activity. Woods Hole Oceanographic InstitutionEarth’s major tectonic plates make up 95% of its surfaceTectonic plates are pieces of Earth’s lithosphere, which consists of the crust and the solid, upper layer of the mantle. Segments of major plates can break and form minor or microplates, whose total number varies based on ongoing geological activity. WorldAtlasThe resulting climate change, not the asteroid impact itself, killed most dinosaursAlthough the Chicxulub impact caused widespread destruction through earthquakes and tsunamis, the subsequent nuclear winter, acid rain, and eventual greenhouse warming drove mass extinction. Roughly 70% of species, including all non-avian dinosaurs, went extinct. National Science FoundationResearch suggests a 95-kilometer-wide (59-mile-wide) asteroid impact could boil the Earth's oceansEven a 1-kilometer-wide (0.62-mile-wide) asteroid can trigger earthquakes and tsunamis on impact with oceans. The overwhelming majority of asteroids that reach Earth are much smaller and burn up in the atmosphere before reaching the ground. SciShowPortugal's 1775 earthquake is considered Europe's first modern natural disasterAn 8.5-magnitude earthquake off the Portuguese coast nearly destroyed Lisbon, killing thousands, creating 16-foot-wide fissures in the city, and triggering a massive tsunami. Historians credit it with jump-starting the Enlightenment in the region, with many thinkers seeking natural explanations. BBC GlobalFriction is the force that resists the sliding of surfaces along one anotherFriction always acts to resist movement and is determined by how rough the surfaces are and how hard they are pressed together. In the case of fluids, friction arises from the relative motion between adjacent fluid layers, which act like sliding surfaces. Science News ExploresSanta Barbara once had a thriving Chinatown and JapantownIn the late 1800s, the city had an influx of immigrants from China and Japan, prompting the growth of areas dominated by their respective cultures. Earthquakes and world wars, as well as a push for Spanish Colonial architecture, led to their eventual decline. The Bottom Line UCSBTree rings can reveal centuries of environmental change and natural eventsThe width and shape of tree rings reflect yearly growth conditions like rainfall or snowfall. Scars in the rings can record disruptions such as fires, avalanches, or earthquakes, explaining when and how those events occurred. USGSShould you get earthquake insurance?Standard home insurance doesn’t typically cover earthquakes. Even if you don't live in a state that's known for its earthquakes like California, it might be worth considering—although it's worth noting that only 13% of California residents have earthquake insurance. Learn more about earthquake insurance in this article. KiplingerEarth is constantly bombarded by material from spaceMost of this matter is composed of small particles, with any smaller than 33 feet in diameter burning up in the atmosphere. Larger asteroids can reach the ground, and those larger than several thousand feet cause global damage, including earthquakes and tsunamis. 1440Roughly 25,000 workers died building the canalFor each mile of canal that was built, 500 workers lost their lives. The threats came from multiple fronts: mudslides, floods, earthquakes and disease-carrying mosquitoes. Workplace accidents became so common that artificial limb manufacturers competed for contracts with the canal builders. HistoryWhen six scientists were convicted over an Italian earthquakeIn April 2009, a 6.3 magnitude earthquake hit the Italian town of L'Aquila, leveling buildings and tragically killing 309 of its residents. Days before, six scientists had been asked to advise town officials on how to respond to a concerning series of tremors known as a seismic swarm. Their comments were later claimed to be crimes, and they were brought to trial for allegedly failing to properly warn those who died. Though they were convicted, a later appeal exonerated the scientists, but not after an international uproar. Read the details here. Science Learning HubDisposal wells for fracking wastewater have been linked to spikes in seismic activityA study of all such underground wells in the central and eastern US found that they were 1.5 times more likely to be associated with earthquakes than oil recovery wells. The link between fluid injection and earthquakes was strongest at disposal wells where fluid was injected quickly. ScienceExplore the decommissioning work at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power StationThis virtual tour explores the nuclear disaster site, which resulted from a magnitude 9.1 earthquake and tsunami on March 11, 2011, and the various processes underway to remove debris, fuel, and contaminated water. Tokyo Electric Power CompanyElectrical discharge from stressed rocks may produce lightningAlthough flashes of light in the sky likely result from storms or damaged transformers and power lines coinciding with geological events, some scientists theorize that fracto-luminescence, or earthquake lights, may be caused by discharged built-up static electricity. NOVA PBS OfficialHow the Turkish earthquake created a 100-mile ruptureA February 2023 earthquake devastated parts of Turkey and Syria destroying entire blocks, with more than 50,000 people killed. A scientific analysis revealed a fault line with a 100-mile-long rupture, where separate tectonic plates moved more than... ReutersVariations in rock types contribute to uncertainty in earthquake predictionsDifferent rock types can withstand different amounts of stress before breaking and melt at different temperatures within Earth’s interior, preventing uniform modeling. The planet’s uneven mass distribution also creates variations in gravitational force, complicating mantle movement. YouTubeIf, not when: An earthquake is destined to destroy the Pacific Northwest.When the Cascadia fault line ruptures, it could be North America’s worst natural disaster in recorded history. Read a deep dive into the history of the region and the potential impact of the eventual seismic boom. The New Yorker